Reflection and Standing Waves
A reflected wave will encounter other wave-fronts travelling in the opposite
direction and interfere with them. Whether the two waves reinforce each other
or cancel each other out depends on their relative phases and frequencies. If a
3.4 Boundaries
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wave of the right frequency happens to bounce between two sides of an object so
that its wavelength, or some multiple of it, is the same as the distance between
reflections, a
standing wave
is created. A standing wave is best regarded as two
waves travelling in opposite directions whose compressions and rarefactions
reinforce each other. Standing waves depend on the geometry of a vibrating
object. Certain lengths will encourage waves to appear at the certain frequen-
cies, and
resonances
or
modes
emerge. Because most real objects aren’t regular,
many different frequencies combine in a complex dynamic process. The pattern
of sound vibrations that emerge from an object is made of these resonances:
waves bouncing around within the material.
Modes
Standing wave patterns tend towards the object’s lowest-energy vibrational
modes, those with the highest amplitude vibrations for the least energy input.
It is a difficult dynamic process to describe without a good deal of math, so
let’s use analogy. Imagine the waves as if they were people in a town centre
throughout a busy shopping day. Early in the morning when there are only
a few people about, only the main high street has people on it. Later in the
afternoon the town is swarming with people, visitors spread out onto the side
streets to visit more obscure shops or to go to each other’s homes. Some tourists
get lost and take unlikely routes down side streets. This is similar to the modes,
or paths that sound waves follow in the shape of an object. The more energy in
the object, the more degrees of freedom will be explored. Some have a higher
probability than others. The main high street is the easiest path. We call this
the
primary mode
. It is the path down which sound energy moves easily to
create the fundamental frequency of the object. The other smaller shopping
streets form the secondary and tertiary paths. These correspond to other fre-
quencies in the sound. The likelihood that an energy wave takes a secondary or
higher path is related to how energetic the sound is. If it contains a lot of energy
then waves spread out to use all the routes. Towards the evening visitors leave
the town (some waves become heat and others are radiated as sound). The
side streets empty and life returns mainly to the high street. This corresponds
to the decay of energy in a sound through damping or radiation. Energy can
move down from the tertiary and secondary modes back into the fundamental
until finally it’s the only strong harmonic left. The shape of standing waves can
clearly be seen in some objects when we use sand particles or strobe lights to
reveal them. Shown in figure 3.11 are some modes of a drum skin (as it makes
an interesting demonstration), technically a circular membrane clamped at the
circumference. The primary, denoted 0:0, is called the “umbrella” mode where
the middle moves up and down. It corresponds to a half wavelength trapped
within the limits of the circle. Other modes are given numbers to distinguish
them, such as 1:2, the first circular mode plus the second diameter mode. All
vibrating objects like bells, strings, or aircraft wings can be analysed in terms
of modes. Modes depend on the material and the speed of sound in it, and the
object’s shape.
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