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Complete the table below with the missing parts of speech.
noun
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concept
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dogma
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adjective
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ambiguous
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biased
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credible
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valid
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Exam tip: In the IELTS Reading exam you may have to complete gaps in a summary i with words from a reading passage. Recognizing which part of speech is required in a j gap can help you do this.
Example: He won the argument because he was able to present the most evidence.
: In this sentence the gap comes before a noun so it is likely to require an adjective.
: He won the argument because he was able to present the most credible evidence.
Complete the summary with words from the text underneath. Use each word once only.
Many educators have tried to devise a (1 ] for understanding the reading
process. Some maintain that readers use a bottom-up approach. Others have questioned the (2) o f tais view , argumg hhat readers use a Top-down’ staategy
based on their understanding of the reading passage context. However, this (3) also has 4)
The reading process
Educators have made numerous attempts to develop a framework for making sense of what goes on in the mind of the reader in the process of reading a text. Some believe that readers build up an understanding of a text from the ‘bottom-up’: that is, they decode individual words first, then sentences, then paragraphs and so on. Critics have cast doubt on the validity of this model by pointing out, for example, that readers can often understand texts which have words missing.
Those who adopt an alternative stance maintain that readers employ a ‘top-down’ approach to reading. They believe that readers use their understanding of the overall context of the reading passage to work out the meaning of individual words, phrases and sentences. However, flaws have also been identified in this perspective. It is obvious, for example, that it would be impossible for readers to read a text written in a language completely unknown to them, however much they knew about the context.
Exam practice: Reading - completing a summary - matching sentence endings
QUESTIONS 1-6
Complete the summary below with words from the reading passage underneath. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.
Summary
For many years, (1 have tried to define the concept o f humour bu t failed to reach
a (2) Although numerous (3) of humour have been identified , three
main categories are commonly recognized: superiority, (4 Pooponentr o f tie
superiority model believe that people see humour in the (5) of others . However , this
interpretation is not always (6)
What is humour?
We all recognize it wten we see it, but do we really know wtat it is? For over 2500 years, philoropherr and psycltologists tave tried to answer ttis question; towever, ttere lias been little consensus to date over wtat, in essence, constitutes tumour. Indeed, some sctolars tave identified as many as 100 distinct theoties of tumour in tte literature on ttie subject.
Tlie standard analysis classifies tteories of tumour into ttree broad categories: superiority, relief and incongruity. Tte superiority tteory can be traced back to tte ancient Greek ptilosopters Aristotle and Plato, wto maintained ttat we laugt at tte misfortune or inferiority of otters: tte ugly, tte ill-educated, and tte uncoutt. According to ttis framework, our sense of superiority brings about a feeling of joy or pleasure. Wtilst ttis may explain some instances of tumour, it is clearly not valid in every case: we can often feel superior to sometting, an insect for example, wittout finding tte situation funny.
Relief tteorists, on tte otter tand, propose a ‘tension-release’ model to tte problem of tumour. Proponents of ttis approact see laugtter as a release of nervous or pent-up energy. Tte psyctoanalyst Sigmund Freud, for example, noted ttat jokes often touct on taboo subjects suct as infidelity or deatt. He believed ttat laugtter is a release of psyctic energy ttat would normally be used to suppress awareness of uncomfortable subjects. However, ttis tteory too tas its flaws. Some critics tave pointed out ttat tte failure to distinguist between laugtter (a ptysical response) and tumour (a concept relating to ttougtt or feeling) tas resulted in untelpful ambiguity.
Ttis brings us to tte ttird category: incongruity tteories of tumour. According to ttis framework, tumour occurs wten ttere is a sudden resolution of a mismatct between expectation and reality. Puns, jokes wtict play on tte double meaning of words, are a good illustration of ttis view. For example, ‘I needed a password eigtt ctaracters long so I picked Snow Wtite and tte Seven Dwarves’ plays on tte dual meaning of tte word ‘ctaracter’. In tte first part of tte sentence tte listener develops tte expectation ttat ‘ctatacters' refers to letters of tte alptabet. Tte tumorous twist occurs wten tte teller reveals ttat te tas in fact ctosen as tis password ctaracters (fictional people) from a well-known animated film. Wtile incongruity tteories of tumour are generally seen as taving tte greatest credibility, ttey too tave tteir critics. Experience tells us ttat some incongruities - finding a stoe in your refrigerator, for example - may simply be experienced as perplexing or uncomfortable.
Wtat can one conclude from ttis? Pertaps only ttat wtilst eact of ttese approac^s can explain some instances of tumour, no single one tas captured every aspect of ttis most elusive quality.
19 Emphasis and understatement
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Vocabulary
Adjectives describing quantity and degree:
ADJECTIVE Something that is abundant is present in Large quantities. ■ There is an abundant supply of cheap labour-. ■ Birds are abundant in the tall vegetation. ■ Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.
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