William andrew kopwe the open university of tanzania

1.5.2 Religious Economy Model

The theory of religious economy is second model which is relevant for the contextual analysis of Sharī’a implementation in Tanzania. The theory of religious economy is a development of the popular theory of secularization. Both secularization and religious economy theories seek to explain the relation of religions in a secular or secularizing society. Secularization theory is built on religious pluralism and competition among religions in the society where there is no monopolization of religion by the Government. According to the theory, religious pluralism undermines the credibility of each competing religion and of religion in general. Therefore, pluralism and competition should lead to secularization. Secularization in this accord presupposes a trend of general decline of both religious organizations and religiousness of people (Introvigne, 2002).
In contrast, religious economy theory gives an opposite view on the status of religion and religiousness of people in a secular or secularization society. In a pluralistic environment, the different religious traditions compete with each other for members and space. Stark and Finke (2000) as cited by Wortham (2004) argue that pluralistic or competitive environments are better able to enhance religious participation. Ukah (2003) succinctly summarizes Religious Economy Model saying that, the theory of religious economy uses a model of market.
This model was first coined by Peter Berger in 1963. According to Berger, religion and religious institutions are just like firms in the market place. The market here refers to the society where religion is exercised. The central idea of this theory is the conceptualization of religion as a commodity, an object of choice. Meanwhile, religious adherents are construed as consumers who shop for religious commodities for which they are ready and willing to bargain and pay a price. In this model, religious leaders are taken as producers and entrepreneurs.
In a secular society like Tanzania, whereby constitutionally, religion is not manipulated by the Government, religious market is unregulated. Hence, religious groups are free to disseminate their ideologies. Such situation is taken to be as free market. Automatically this creates market competition whereby “different religious groups are compelled to compete among themselves for the interest, allegiance and financial support of their (potential) adherents and public patronage.
According to Berger, religious groups could thus be perceived as economic units which are engaging in competition within a free market (Ukah, 2003). Iannaccone (1992) quoted by Ukah (2003) says that because of a wide spectrum of choice, the producers tend to make sure that they produce a commodity that appeals to their clienteles and that they may control the market by maintaining niche and keep a steady demand for supplies. The cardinal features of religious economy are: unregulated religious practices, religious pluralism, rationality, competition and freedom of choice, or participation.
These features emphasize plurality of religious practice and options in an unregulated environment which forces religious organizations to operate according to the logic of a market. Peter Berger and others who developed this theory referred to the North American context. Ukah used this theory to discuss the Pentecostal churches in Nigeria in respect to religious competition in Nigerian context. In Tanzania also, religious groups are constantly in competition for the control of the market and control of state power which gives the upper hand for market control. Hence this market model within the religious economy theory is relevant to the Tanzanian context and provides a theoretical framework through which to analyze Sharī’a implementation and the discourses in Tanzania.

1.5.3 The Model of Religious Globalization

Religious globalization is another important model for the study of Sharī’a implementation in the Tanzania Mainland. The Muslims’ demand for Sharī’a implementation in its diversity of operations has been a result of a worldwide Islamic resurgence (Esposito, 1991). Because of rapid expansion of information and communication technologies, contacts between peoples and cultures have greatly intensified. Scholars have characterized this state of affairs as processes of globalization. Globalization brings the whole world together to be as a single village by “the increase and intensification of interaction across state borders.” Robertson (1992a) contends globalization is an idea that represents a process of compression of the world and corresponding consciousness of the world as whole. This makes a significance phenomenon of local occurrences, practices and actions.
This study follows the methodological approach employed by Asonze Ukah (2003) in The Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG), Nigeria: Local Identities and Global Processes in African Pentecostalism. Ukah used this theory to describe the connection between the RCCG in Nigeria and the international Pentecostal movement which is characterized by Christian extremism and revivalism. It is therefore, worthwhile to use this model to study Sharī’a debates in the local Tanzania Mainland context, especially in respect to the international Islamic resurgence whose hallmark is to go back to the pristine Islam, the Islam of the Salaffiya (ancestors) that brings back Sharī’a rule in the central Governments (Joinet, 1998).
In using Religious Globalization model to study religious movements in the world, one has to bear in mind that there is a widespread debate on what globalization is all about. Ukah (2003) contends that on one hand, scholars like Kanter (1995); Hirst and Thompson (1996); Wallerstein (1999); Stiglitz (2002) and many others, have conceptualized globalization as an economically driven process. On the other hand, scholars like Held, McGrew, Goldblatt and Perraton (1999); Held (2000); Gedden (2000); Castells (2000a) and Berger and Huntington (2002) widen the scope of the force behind globalization. For them the phenomenon is complex. It involves wider socio-cultural ramifications. Therefore, in this study the researcher identifies with the second group of scholars who assert that globalization has to be looked at with a wider perspective than the economical arena only. Rather it should be examined as a phenomenon that touches all spheres of human life. Therefore globalization theory is an appropriate theory for this study because religion is a global phenomenon.
The work of Mazrui (2001) supports this conclusion. He elucidates that globalization is enhanced by mainly four machineries: religion, technology, economy and empire. Therefore, one cannot talk about globalization without talking about religion. Tanzanians, to whom this research is of concern, are not exceptional in the issue of globalization. What happens in other parts of the globe, particularly matters pertaining to religion, more or less touches the Tanzanians. This state of affairs shapes the Tanzanians’ perceptions, outlook and attitudes toward their respective religions and other religions (Binsbergen, 2003).
Similarly, for Robertson (1992a), religion is a very important component of globalization phenomenon. For him, “Religion structures some of the ways in which a society is involved in the global situation. Because globalization relativises local cultures, it creates conditions that ignite process of vitalization. Local interpretations of actions are characterized by how they connect to the global scene”. This action makes both local and global elements of religion to be constantly influencing each other. “The attempt to adapt global idea and practices leads to the process of glocalization, while the search for relevance in the global context produces the globalization of the local”. Robertson’s argument is that the local religious practices are underpinned by the global ones, and vice versa. He says that, “religious practices and currents are to be understood according to their global situatedness in the global field” (Ukah, 2003:30)². The concept of glocalization of the global and globalization of the local elements is similar to the idea of universalization of the Little Tradition and parochialization of the Great traditions by Kim (20045).
Talking about how global events influence the local ones through modern media and communication technologies, Beyer (1994) as cited by Ukah (2003) says the modern means of communication have changed the perceptions of people about themselves and their religious practices. This is because modern communication means bringing together isolated societies, making them aware of their differences and similarities. Such direct confrontation of differences poses challenges to local beliefs systems and worldviews.
Religious globalization is a subset of cultural globalization. Robertson (1992a) says that there is a global socio-cultural system which “encompasses civilization cultures, sub-societies, intra-societal, quasi-groups and individuals.” This system is characterized by cultural pluralism. Among other things, religious globalization furnishes people of different religions in the world with the international movements of religious resurgence. The hallmark of religious resurgence is the call to restoration of the fundamentals of religion or return to perceived abandonment of orthodoxy and traditional religious values. Since Tanzanians are also connected to the external world their awareness about the international religious movements is intensified.
Apart from glocalization of global religious practices and movements and globalization of ‘local’ religious practices and movements, there is nothing that can be said to be a true copy of any of the practices in the world. All the practices are being done in accordance with the given context of people. Greg Mills, talking about diversity in the global village, particularly the African context, argues that “the internal diversity of Africa demand specific attention to specific countries” (Ukah, 2003:33). This brings us to the conclusion that though Tanzania Mainland is part and parcel of the globalized world, religious trends in the Country need to be analyzed according to the Tanzania Mainland context.