We can all speak and understand each other; do we need to investigate how?

Chapter 4 NON-SENTENCE UTTERANCES

There are utterances which do not constitute sentences (non-sentence utterances). They are:

1. Vocatives.

Charles?
Mr West!

2. “Yes-no” utterances. These are mostly responses to “yes-no” questions.

Are you coming? - Yes/No.

3. Interjections.

Hi! (Hey!) Oh!
Dear me! - Боже мой!
Look here! - Послушай!
Well, I never! - Вот те на! Вот так так! Ну и ну!
Goodness gracious! - Боже мой! Господи! Вот те на!

4. Different conversational formulas.

Thanks.
Good-bye.

Chapter 5 PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
Almost every sentence can be divided into certain components which are called parts of the sentence. Parts of the sentence are usually classified into main and secondary. The main parts of the sentence are the subject and the prediсate. They constitute the backbone of the sentence. The secondary parts of the sentence are the object, the attribute, the apposition and the adverbial modifier. The secondary parts of the sentence modify the main parts or each other.
Besides these two kinds of sentence components there are so-called independent elements, that is, elements standing outside the structure of the sentence, and therefore of lesser importance. The independent elements are parenthesis and direct address.
5.1 Word-forms
A word-form is any form of the grammatical paradigm of the word. Girl, girls, girl’s, girls'; to write, writes, wrote, is writing, has been written, will have been writing, etc.; pale, paler; brilliant, more brilliant, most brilliant are all word-forms.
As seen from the above a word-form may contain either one component or more than one. One-component word-forms are various synthetic forms of the word, while multi-component word-forms are analytical forms of the word which are composed of оne or more auxiliary components and one notional component. The auxiliary components may be verbs (be, have, do, shall, will), adverbs (more, most), particles (to).


Note:

In grammar we usually deal with word-forms, not words, though it is customary to make use of the term

“word” in the sense of “word-form” as well. So in the following chapters both these terms will be used in
the sense of “word-form”, “word-form” being more exact, “word” having the advantage of being shorter.