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Participation in sports also varies by socioeconomic status and race/
ethnicity (Johnston et al., 2007; CDC, 2012). Studies indicate fewer sports 
opportunities and lower participation in schools with a higher percentage 
of black and Hispanic students compared with schools with a majority of 
white students (Edwards et al., 2012). This finding is significant given that 
participation in school sports was shown to be a correlate of physical activ-
ity in black, Hispanic, and white middle school girls (Kelly et al., 2010).
According to the American Heart Association,
in recent years, there has been substantial interest in offering additional 
after-school activities to serve the needs of more students. For example, 
researchers at Stanford University are testing after-school ethnic and popu-
lar dance classes for girls in grades 2 to 5 and an after-school team sports 
program designed exclusively for overweight children in grades 4 and 5, 
a population that would not normally participate in sports teams. (Pate et 
al., 2006, p. 1219)
Nationwide, 8.4 million children in grades K-12 currently attend after-
school programs averaging 8.1 hours per week, and 18.5 million others 
would attend if suitable programs were available (Smith, 2007; Afterschool 
Alliance, 2009; Kang and Weber, 2010) (see Chapter 6 for additional 
discussion). The Afterschool Alliance’s 2009 America After 3PM study 
revealed that an average of 67 percent of students participating in after-
school programs qualify for free and reduced-price lunches, 14 percent are 
limited English proficient, and 11 percent have special needs/disabilities. 
Few studies have examined correlates of participation in physical activity 
within after-school programs. 

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
The Effectiveness of Physical Activity and Physical Education Policies and Programs
 
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Programs with more structure and supervision have been found to 
generate more physical activity among participants (Beets et al., 2012b). As 
with sports, Trost and colleagues
(2008b) found that elementary-age boys 
were more likely than girls to engage in physical activity during after-school 
programs.
Impact on Physical Activity
The adoption of policies to provide sports programs in schools has 
great potential to increase physical activity among students (Kanters et al., 
2013). This holds true for disparate populations, including rural, inner-city, 
and economically disadvantaged youth (Vandell et al., 2007; Edwards et 
al., 2012). 
Although studies vary in methodology and population, evidence 
shows that involvement in sports enhances cardiovascular fitness (Beets 
and Pitetti, 2005) and increases the amount of time spent in vigorous- or 
moderate-intensity physical activity (Nelson et al., 2005, 2006; Coleman et 
al., 2008; Dodge and Lambert, 2009; Graham et al., 2011). In one study 
of sports involving boys aged 6-12, Wickel and Eisenmann (2007) found 
that participants averaged 110 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity 
physical activity during a day in which they participated in a sport, com-
pared with only 30 minutes on a nonsport day. Another study, by Leek 
and colleagues
(2011), found that youth involved in soccer, baseball, or 
softball teams engaged in a mean of 45.1 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-
intensity physical activity, with variation by sport. Participation in these 
programs thus appears to contribute to the overall recommendation of 60 
minutes per day of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for 
youth. The authors note, however, that
enhanced policies could ensure sufficient physical activity during practices 
by emphasizing participation over competition, sponsoring teams for all 
skill levels across all ages, ensuring access by lower income youth with 
sliding scales for fees, increasing practice frequency, extending short sea-
sons, using pedometers or accelerometers to monitor physical activity peri-
odically during practices, providing coaches strategies to increase physical 
activity, and supporting youth and parents in obtaining adequate physical 
activity on non-practice days. (p. 298) 
Although after-school physical activity programs are growing in number, 
their effectiveness in increasing physical activity among participants is unclear 
(Beets et al., 2009). Data are limited on physical activity levels in the after-
school period (Trost et al., 2008b), which vary by program and the context in 
which the activity takes place (e.g., indoor versus outdoor, structured versus 
unstructured) (Trost et al., 2008b; Beets et al., 2009), as well as implementa-

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
338