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Figure 6.7
Percentage distribution of the population by wealth quintile according to residence,
2005-06
Source: National Family Health Survey-3, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, GoI, 2007, page 43.
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The poor depend upon Common Property Resource (CPR) far more than the rich, due to their lack of access or low productive assets, and lack of work and purchasing power. This adversely affects their standard of living. The importance of land as a livelihood resource cannot be overstated. While only 18% of the GDP comes from agriculture today, the proportion of the workforce that is engaged in agriculture is 58%. The estimated number of landless rural families in the country is 13-18 million. While the economy is at present growing at a rate of about 8-9%, agriculture, which provides employment to 58% of the country’s workforce, is growing at less than 3%. This clearly indicates the rising economic disparities between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors of the economy, and also signifies continued poverty of the lower strata in the rural community in an absolute sense. Such a scenario adversely affects the standard of living of such rural communities.
6E.2 Policy
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The National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, 2007, aims at providing a better standard of living with sustainable income to project-affected families through a process of adequate and expeditious rehabilitation. (See Section 1.2 for details.) In order to address the issue of forced relocation and other types of involuntary population movement, amendments have been proposed in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894.
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The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy addresses the need for affordable housing for all, with special emphasis on the urban poor. (See Section 1.2 for details.)
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The National Policy on Urban Street Vendors, circulated by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation in 2004, is being comprehensively revised. The revised Policy will take care of all aspects of street vendors, including exploitation of child vendors. Also, in the Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP)/Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) components of JNNURM, the seven-point charter focuses on the convergence approach to ensure basic facilities such as health, education and social security to the marginalised sections of society. (See Annexure 6E.1 for details on National Policy on Urban Street Vendors.)
6E.3 Legislation
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Based on the experience of various wage employment programmes, NREGA was enacted to reinforce the commitment of the Government towards livelihood security in rural areas. The Act was notified on September 7, 2005. The significance of NREGA lies in the fact that it creates a rights-based framework for wage employment programmes, and makes the Government legally bound to provide employment to those who seek it. In this way, the legislation goes beyond providing a social safety net, and towards guaranteeing the right to employment. The experience with NREGA so far suggests that it is one of the main planks of rapid poverty reduction in the 11th Five Year Plan period.
6E.4 Programmes
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India has a long history and experience in implementing wage employment programmes. These wage employment programmes, implemented by State Governments with Central assistance, are self-targeting, with the objective of providing enhanced livelihood security, especially to those dependent on casual manual labour.
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The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was launched in 2001 with an objective of providing additional wage employment in the rural areas, as also food security, alongside creation of durable community, social and economic infrastructure in the rural areas. The National Food for Work Programme (NFWP) was launched in 2004 in 150 most backward Districts of the country, with the objective to intensify the generation of supplementary wage employment. The Pradhan Mantri’s Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) was launched in 2000-01 and provides allocation of Additional Central Assistance (ACA) to States and UTs for selected basic services, such as primary health, primary education, rural shelter, rural drinking water, nutrition and rural electrification. The Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) was launched in 2000 and provides foodgrains at a highly-subsidised rate to poor families under the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).1
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The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), launched on February 2, 2006, in 200 Districts across various States in the country, is a historic rights-based employment guarantee that provides income support to the weaker sections of the rural society. The SGRY and NFWP have been subsumed under the NREGS. It also serves the larger objective of enhancing agricultural productivity because the first priority under NREGS is being given to projects aimed at water conservation. Starting with 200 Districts across the country in Phase-I during 2006-07, the NREGS was extended to additional 130 Districts in Phase-II during 2007-08. From April 1, 2008 onwards, the Act covers the whole of rural India. In 2008-09, over 40 million households were provided employment, which is a significant jump over the 30.39 million households covered under the Scheme in 2007-08.
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Awareness about the existence of NREGS is low in many areas, especially in the States of Bihar and Maharashtra. Many States are still in the process of notifying the State scheme, and putting in place State-specific guidelines. Only 13 States, namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Tripura have finalised State-specific operational guidelines.2
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The Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (MoHUPA) is implementing an employment-oriented urban poverty alleviation scheme of Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY) since 1997. Under SJSRY, urban poor are assisted in income generation activities, so as to bring them above the poverty line. It is presumed that this will lead to a better life for their children and also reduce the exploitation of children in poor families. The community empowerment component of the Scheme focuses on community participation in addressing the needs of marginalised section of the society.3
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SSA, the principle programme for the universalisation of elementary education, has brought elementary education to the doorsteps of millions of children, and enrolled them through successive fast-track initiatives, both in unserved and underserved habitations. With the opening of 0.12 million primary schools, access to primary education has been nearly achieved. More thrust has been given to children with special needs (CWSN) through the adoption of a multi-optional model for educating CWSN. This initiative has been successful in enrolling 1.99 million out of the identified 2.4 million CWSN (81%) in schools.
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The NRHM was launched in 2005 to address the problems across primary healthcare and to bring about improvement in the health system and health status of those who live in poor areas. (See Sections 6C.3.1 and 6C.4.1 for details.) The 11th Five Year Plan also provides an opportunity to restructure policies to achieve a new vision based on faster, broad-based and inclusive growth. The Plan will facilitate convergence and development of public health systems and services that are responsive to health needs and aspirations of people.4
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A Farm Loan Waiver Scheme was announced in 2008 to bail out small and marginal farmers, and those engaged in allied activities such as livestock rearing, who had availed of credit from banks for purposes such as deepening of wells, and purchasing tractors from the debt trap. The results of the Scheme so far show that it has been able to restore institutional credit to farmers and has helped to support demand and revive investment in the rural and agricultural sectors.
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The 11th Five Year Plan emphasises expansion of opportunities and human capabilities in the policies and programmes directed at the problems of poverty, unemployment and low standards of living, and at the widening urban-rural gap as a result of urbanisation and industrialisation.
6E.5 Challenges
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The 11th Plan, with its focus on inclusive growth, helps to trigger a development process and ensures broad-based improvement in the quality of life of people. The vision of the 11th Plan includes several inter-related components, such as poverty reduction and creation of employment, access to essential services, equality of opportunity, recognition of child rights, etc. However, the major challenge before India is to ensure that the benefits of economic growth trickle down to all sections across regions and social areas. The widespread child poverty, both in rural and urban areas, which is a cause of concern, needs sustained efforts towards it. Improved targeting and monitoring of poverty reduction, livelihood security and social security programmes are required, to ensure that the benefits reach the most in need.
7. Education, Leisure and Cultural Activities
Articles 28, 29 and 31
The Concluding Observations (COs) addressed in this chapter include:
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Aims of education, CO No. 65 (a) in paras 99-105;
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Equal access, CO No. 65 (b) in paras 14-15, 16-20, 44-48 and 54-55, 59-61;
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Awareness on early childhood education, CO No. 65 (c) in para 68;
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Participation of children, CO No. 65 (d) in Chapter 3 paras 121-139;
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Quality of education, CO No. 65 (e) in paras 50, 57-58 and 22-25;
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Teachers training, CO No. 65 (f) in paras 69-71;
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Teacher absenteeism, CO No. 65 (g) in para 53;
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School infrastructure, CO No. 65 (h) in para 6;
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Assistance from UNICEF and UNESCO, CO No. 65 (i) in paras 72-73.
7A. Education, including Vocational Training and Guidance
Article 28
7A.1 Status and Trends
7A.1.1 Pre-School Education
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The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme is being universalised, and its Pre-School Education (PSE) component strengthened to ensure universalisation of early childhood education and preparation of children, particularly those belonging to socially disadvantaged groups, for formal schooling. The beneficiaries under PSE have increased from 21.4 million in 2004-05 to 33 million in 2007-08. Recent studies have confirmed the positive impact of attendance in pre-school centres on children’s psycho-social and cognitive competencies, and their continuation into primary school. Steps are being taken for quality improvement, which will be intensified during the 11th Five Year Plan period (2007-12).5
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An independent nation-wide survey of rural education found a rapid increase in the total proportion of children (3-6 years) attending PSE. In 2006, 68% of 3-4 year olds were attending public or private pre-schools, which increased to 76% in 2008. The figure for five year olds in 2008 was 90.5%. This study also included unrecognised pre-schools (day-care centres, kindergartens, nurseries, etc.) in the private sector.6
7A.1.2 Elementary Education
7A.1.2.1 Universal Enrolment and Access
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Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a flagship programme of the Government, focuses on universal enrolment through improved access and targeted interventions for out-of-school children. For improving access, SSA provides for primary school within one kilometre of a habitation and upper primary school for every two primary schools. Un-served habitations are mainly covered through Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) centres; for out-of-school children there are context-specific targeted interventions, mainly under Alternative and Innovative Education (AIE) centres.
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During 1999-2000 through 2006-07, the number of primary schools increased from 0.642 million to 1.118 million, and upper primary schools increased from 0.198 million to 1.054 million.7
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Consequent to opening of 0.151 million primary schools and 0.137 million upper primary schools under SSA, access has increased manifold. By March 2008, 99% habitations in the country had access to school within one kilometre and about 92% habitations had access to upper primary school within three kilometre. Availability of schools within a reasonable distance of habitations has had a positive impact on enrolments in primary and upper primary schools.
7A.1.2.2 School Access and School Infrastructure
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SSA supports the creation of required physical infrastructure in new schools, as well as augmentation of infrastructure in existing schools. School buildings sanctioned under SSA are composite school buildings, with the required number of classrooms, drinking water and sanitation facilities and a kitchen for cooking the mid-day meals. With the increase in school enrolments, there is a requirement of additional classrooms in existing schools, which are also being constructed under SSA. Substantial progress has been made in provisioning of schools, toilets and water supply in most States. SSA mandates the participation of the local community in all civil work activities in order to instil a sense of ownership in them. An extensive supervision and monitoring system has been put in place to ensure the quality of construction. Social audit by the community is the basis of this supervision system.8 Although designs of school buildings and cost of construction vary across different States, it is expected that all designs must incorporate certain basic features, such as barrier-free access and resistance against hazards like earthquakes, especially in schools located in high-risk seismic zones. Under SSA, 0.263 million school buildings and 1.105 million additional classrooms have been provided, consequent to which student classroom ratio has decreased from 42:1 to 33:1. The provision of 0.198 million drinking water facilities and 0.334 million toilets has improved basic facilities in the school. In addition, Total Sanitation Campaign and Drinking Water Mission also provide for drinking water and toilet facilities that will accelerate provision of the facilities.
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