Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

cognitive dissonance 
The confl ict that 
occurs when a person holds two 
contradictory attitudes or thoughts 
(referred to as cognitions).
FIGURE 3 
Cognitive dissonance. The simultaneous presence of two contradictory cognitions 
(“I smoke” and “Smoking leads to cancer”) produces dissonance, which can be reduced 
through several methods. What are additional ways in which dissonance can be reduced?
Two contradictory cognitions 
Dissonance 
1. “I smoke.” 
2. “Smoking leads to cancer.” 
Modifying one or both 
cognitions (“I really don’t 
smoke too much.”) 
Changing perceived 
importance of the cognition 
(“The evidence is weak that 
smoking causes cancer.”) 
Adding additional cognitions 
(“I exercise so much that it 
doesn’t matter that I smoke.”) 
Denying that cognitions are
related (“There is no evidence
linking smoking and cancer.”)
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Module 52 
Attitudes and Social Cognition 
583
We now know that dissonance explains many everyday events involving attitudes 
and behavior. For example, smokers who know that smoking leads to lung cancer 
hold contradictory cognitions: (1) I smoke, and (2) smoking leads to lung cancer. The 
theory predicts that these two thoughts will lead to a state of cognitive dissonance. 
More important, it predicts that—assuming they don’t change their behavior by 
quitting smoking—smokers will be motivated to reduce their dissonance by one of 
the following methods: (1) modifying one or both of the cognitions, (2) changing the 
perceived importance of one cognition, (3) adding cognitions, or (4) denying that 
the two cognitions are related to each other. Hence, a smoker may decide that he really 
doesn’t smoke all that much or that he’ll quit soon (modifying the cognition), that the 
evidence linking smoking to cancer is weak (changing the importance of a cognition), 
that the amount of exercise he gets compensates for the smoking (adding cognitions), 
or that there is no evidence linking smoking and cancer (denial). Whichever technique 
the smoker uses results in reduced dissonance (see Figure 3). 
Social Cognition: 
Understanding Others
Regardless of Bill Clinton’s personal transgressions and impeachment trial, many Amer-
icans genuinely liked him when he was president, and his popularity remained high 
throughout his term in offi ce. Cases like this illustrate the power of our impressions 
and attest to the importance of determining how people develop an understanding of 
others. One of the dominant areas in social psychology during the last few years has 
focused on learning how we come to understand what others are like and how we 
explain the reasons underlying others’ behavior.