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FIGURE 1
In spite of numerous
diff erences among cultures, research has
found strong similarities in the content
of gender stereotypes.
(Source: Williams &
Best, 1990.)
Active
Adventurous
Aggressive
Ambitious
Arrogant
Assertive
Autocratic
Clear-thinking
Coarse
Courageous
Cruel
Daring
Determined
Disorderly
Dominant
Egotistical
Energetic
Enterprising
Forceful
Hardheaded
Hardhearted
Independent
Initiative
Inventive
Lazy
Logical
Loud
Masculine
Opportunistic
Progressive
Rational
Realistic
Reckless
Robust
Rude
Self-confident
Serious
Severe
Stern
Stolid
Strong
Unemotional
Wise
Affected
Affectionate
Attractive
Charming
Curious
Dependent
Dreamy
Emotional
Fearful
Feminine
Gentle
Mild
Sensitive
Sentimental
Sexy
Softhearted
Submissive
Superstitious
Talkative
Weak
Words Used to Describe Males
Words Used to Describe Females
FIGURE 2
Gender discrepancies
throughout the world. Each year, the
World Economic Forum ranks countries
on the basis of gender equality,
considering educational attainment,
economic participation and opportunity,
political empowerment, and health and
survival. Out of 134 countries, the
United States ranks 31st worldwide.
Iceland, Finland, and Norway are at the
top of the list; Pakistan, Chad, and
Yemen are at the bottom.
(Source:
Hausmann, Tyson, & Zahidi, 2009.)
Country Rank
Country
Rank
Iceland 1
Finland 2
Norway 3
Sweden 4
New Zealand
5
South Africa
6
Denmark 7
Ireland 8
Philippines 9
Lesotho 10
Netherlands 11
Germany 12
Switzerland 13
Latvia 14
United Kingdom
15
Sri Lanka
16
Spain 17
France 18
Trinidad and Tobago
19
Australia 20
Barbados 21
Mongolia 22
Ecuador 23
Argentina 24
Canada 25
Mozambique 26
Costa Rica
27
Bahamas 28
Cuba 29
Lithuania 30
United States
31
Namibia 32
Belgium 33
Belarus 34
Guyana 35
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Module 32
Gender and Sex
345
Percentage
1979
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2008
Year
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
FIGURE 3
Although men’s wages have stagnated since 2001, women still earn an average
of 80¢ for every dollar that men earn. The disparity is even greater for women who are
members of minority groups. What factors account for the continuing gap between men’s
and women’s wages?
(Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009.)
Sexism on the Job
Differences still exist regarding which occupations are deemed appropriate for men
and for women. Women continue to be viewed as best suited for traditionally female
jobs—that is, pink-collar jobs such as secretary, nurse, cashier, and jobs in other
female-dominated professions that often feature low pay and low status. Men and
women alike still report that they expect greater success when they enter a profession
viewed as appropriate for their gender. Furthermore, women hold lower expectations
than men about their entering and peak salaries (Crawford & Unger, 2004; MacPher-
son, 2002; Casad, 2007).
Those expectations refl ect the reality that women, on average, earn less than men.
Although the gap has been decreasing, women overall earn an average of 80¢ for
every dollar that men earn. Women who are members of minority groups fare worse:
Black women earn 69¢ for every dollar men make, and Hispanic and Latino women
earn just 62¢ for every dollar men earn. Furthermore, even when they are in the same
professions as men, women generally earn less than men in comparable positions
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009; see Figure 3).
Despite these inequities, attitudes are shifting. Most people endorse gender
equality in the workplace, and they believe that women should be given the same
opportunities as men. For example, just about as many men as women endorse the
idea that jobs should be family friendly by offering fl exible work schedules. In addi-
tion, polls today fi nd that most men no longer believe that a woman’s most appro-
priate role is to care for her home and children while men should be earning
money—a shift from the 1970s, when the majority of men endorsed that traditional
view (Bond et al., 2003; Barnett, 2004).
Still, even when women are successful on the job and are promoted into upper-
level, high-status positions, they may face signifi cant hurdles in their efforts to move
up the corporate ladder. Such obstacles are especially true for professional women
who become mothers; they tend to be newly perceived as warm but less competent
than they were prior to motherhood. The same thing doesn’t happen to men who
become fathers; they are most likely to be viewed as warm and competent (Cuddy,
Fiske, & Glick, 2004).
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