Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 8
“Only following orders” defense, 596
Operant conditioning
the basics of, 184–193
biological constraints on, 193
comparing classical and,
193–194 f
defi nition of, 183
discrimination and generalization 
in, 191
positive/negative reinforces and 
punishment, 185–186
reinforcement of, 184–185 f
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I-22 Subject 
Index
reinforcement versus punish-
ment, 186–189
schedules of reinforcement 
for, 189–191
shaping through, 192
Thorndike’s law of effect, 183–184 f
Operant conditioning techniques,
550–551
Operational defi nition, 35
Opponent-process theory of color, 112
Opportunity NYC, 188
Optic chiasm, 108
Optic nerve, 107 f –108, 109 f
Optogenetics, 81
Oral histories, 229–230
Oral stage, 441–442
Organic mental disorders. See also
Alzheimer’s disease, 531
Orgasm, 359
Outgroups, 599
Ovaries
endocrine system and, 76 f
puberty and development of,
412–413 f
Overeating coping strategy, 480
Overgeneralization of language 
rules, 267
Ovulation, 356
Oxycodone, 163 f , 168
P 
Pain
gate-control theory of, 122
sense of, 120–123
strategies to fi ght chronic, 123, 156
Pancreas, 76 f
Panic disorder, 514–515
Paraphilias, 531
Parasympathetic division, 72–73 f
Parathyroids, 76 f
Parenting styles
four types of, 401–402 f
social development and, 402–403
Parents-adolescent relationship, 419
Parietal lobes, 85 f
Parkinson’s disease, 67