Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

cerebellum (ser-uh-BELL-um)
The 
part of the brain that controls bodily 
balance.
reticular formation
The part of the 
brain extending from the medulla 
through the pons and made up of 
groups of nerve cells that can immedi-
ately activate other parts of the brain 
to produce general bodily arousal.
FIGURE 2 
The major divisions of the 
brain: the cerebral cortex and the 
central core. 
(Source: Seeley, Stephens, 
& Tate, 2000.)
Cerebral cortex 
(the “new brain”) 
Central core 
(the “old brain”) 
 
Module 9 
The Brain 
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Applying Psychology 
in the 21st Century
Mind over Cursor: Harnessing 
Brainpower to Improve Lives
Hans-Peter Salzmann, a lawyer suffering 
from Lou Gehrig’s disease, was locked 
within his own body. Paralyzed by the dis-
ease and unable to eat, speak, or even 
breathe on his own, he had to rely on a res-
pirator and a feeding tube to survive. Al-
though his mind functioned normally, he 
was unable to communicate with the out-
side world.
All that changed, however, after Salz-
mann obtained an experimental device that 
allows brain waves to be translated into 
written communication. Using EEG scan-
ning techniques that react to the pattern of 
brain waves originating in the brain, Salz-
mann learned to boost and curtail certain 
types of brain waves. After hundreds of 
hours of practice, he was able to select let-
ters that appear on a video screen. By 
stringing letters together, he could spell out 
messages. The process, which makes use of 
brain waves called “slow cortical poten-
tials,” permitted Salzmann to communicate 
effectively for the fi rst time in years. Al-
though the method is slow and tedious—
Salzmann can produce only about two 
characters per minute—it holds great 
promise for people with spinal cord injuries 
and diseases that have left them paralyzed 
(Neumann & Birbaumer, 2004; Pollack, 
2006; Hatsopoulos & Donoghue, 2009).
Neuroscience researchers are making re-
markable progress at developing this tech-
nology of thought-based interfaces. It’s not 
ready to be put into widespread use, but 
recent discoveries show how rapidly the 
technology is developing. In one extraordi-
nary experiment, researchers implanted 
freckle-sized electrodes onto the brains of 
two monkeys at the motor cortex—the re-
gion of the brain responsible for voluntary 
muscle movement. Each electrode con-
nected with 100 individual neurons in this 
region. A computer wired to the electrodes 
interpreted the signals coming from these 
neurons and used the information to direct 
the movement of a mechanical arm while 
the monkeys’ own arms were restrained 
(Velliste et al., 2008).
The monkeys were initially “trained” 
in the manipulation of the arm, using joy-
sticks at fi rst and then using the brain in-
terface with additional computer guidance 
(somewhat like using training wheels 
while learning to ride a bicycle). Within 
days, the monkeys were operating the 
arm using just their thoughts with no ad-
ditional help. They sat in a chair and used 
the arm to reach out and grab treats such 
as grapes and marshmallows and bring 
them to their mouths. This task required 
them not only to move the arm through 
space but also to manipulate the grip on 
its end to seize the food and then to re-
lease it into their mouths.
While this much of a successful accom-
plishment was extraordinary by itself, the 
progress didn’t stop there. The monkeys 
actually proceeded to show the scientists a 
new trick or two by becoming adept 
enough with the brain interface to impro-
vise entirely unanticipated manipulations 
of the mechanical arm, such as using it to 
push food into their mouths as if it were 
their own hand. This ability is an impor-
tant step forward, as any practical device 
for assisting the disabled would have to be 
able to be used in inventive ways in order 
to provide for their unique needs in a natu-
ral way. No computer program alone can 
anticipate every possible movement that 
might be necessary, but the monkeys 
showed that they could adapt the device to 
serve their own goals (Carey, 2008; Velliste 
et al., 2008).
Many hurdles remain before paralyzed 
people will be using thought-controlled 
devices routinely, particularly in terms of 
the need for stable electrodes, wireless 
communication, and portable translating 
computers. But achievements such as this 
give researchers hope that they are close to 
overcoming the remaining challenges such 
that one day—perhaps sooner than one 
might expect—their seemingly wild dream 
of giving new mobility to paralyzed people 
will be realized (Stix, 2008).
• Why is it so important to develop a complex and very expensive means of com-
munication for the relatively small number of people who are living with locked-in 
syndrome?