(see Hamilton, 1996, for some). All these attempts indicate a rare conver-
gence of ideas and interests in as wide a geographical area and as varied a
pedagogical context as North America, Western Europe and South Asia. In
this chapter, I focus on two learning-centered methods, mainly because
both of them have been widely recognized and reviewed in the L2 litera-
ture: the Natural Approach, and the Communicational Approach.
The Natural Approach (NA) was originally proposed by Terrell at the
University of California at Irvine initially for teaching beginning level Span-
ish for adult learners in the United States. It was later developed fully by
combining the practical experience gained by Terrell and the theoretical
constructs of the Monitor Model of second language acquisition proposed
by Krashen, an applied linguist at the University of Southern California.
The principles and procedures of the approach have been well articulated
in Krashen and Terrell (1983). In addition, Brown and Palmer (1988) de-
veloped language specifications and instructional materials for applying
Krashen’s theory. The NA is premised on the belief that a language is best
acquired when the learner’s focus is not directly on the language.
The Communicational Approach, very much like the NA, is based on the
belief that grammar construction can take place in the absence of any ex-
plicit focus on linguistic features. It was developed through a long-term
project initiated and directed by Prabhu, who was an English Studies Spe-
cialist at the British Council, South India. Reviews of the project that have
appeared in the literature call it the Bangalore Project (referring to the
place of its origin), or the Procedural Syllabus (referring to the nature of its
syllabus), but the project team itself used the name Communicational
Teaching Project (CTP). The need for the project arose from a widespread
dissatisfaction with a version of language-centered pedagogy followed in In-
dian schools. It was also felt that the learner-centered pedagogy with its em-
phasis on situational appropriacy might not be relevant for a context where
English is taught and learned more for academic and administrative rea-
sons than for social interactional purposes. The project was carried out for
5 years (1979–1984) in large classes in South India (30 to 45 students per
class in primary schools, and 40 to 60 students per class in secondary
schools). Few classes used teaching aids beyond the chalkboard, paper, and
pencil. Toward the end of the project period and at the invitation of the
project team, a group of program evaluators from the University of Edin-
burgh, U.K. evaluated the efficacy of the approach (see, e.g., Beretta &
Davies, 1985). Thus, among the known learning-centered methods, the
CTP is perhaps the only one that enjoys the benefits of a sustained system-
atic investigation as well as a formal external evaluation.
In the following sections of this chapter, I take a critical look at the theo-
retical principles and classroom procedures associated with learning-
centered methods with particular reference to the NA and the CTP.
LEARNING-CENTERED METHODS
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