Theoretical grammar пәні бойынша

Dialects in Britain. In the British Isles there exist many speech varieties confined to particular areas. These local dialects traceable to Old English dialects may be classified into six distinct divisions: 1) Lowland (Scottish or Scotch, North of the river Tweed), 2) Northern (between the rivers Tweed and Humber), 3) Western, 4) Midland and 5) Eastern (between the river Humber and the Thames), 6) Southern (South of the Thames). The Scottish dialect of the English language is to be distinguished from the Scottish tongue, which is a Celtic language spoken in the Highlands.
The local dialects in Britain are sharply declining in importance at the present time; they are being obliterated by the literary language. This process is twofold. On the one hand, lexical units of the literary language enter local dialects, ousting some of their words and expressions. On the other hand, dialectal words penetrate into the national literary language.
Dialects in the USA. The following three major belts of dialects have so far been identified, each with its own characteristic features: Northern, Midland and Southern, Midland being in turn divided into North Midland and South Midland.
The differences in vocabulary are rather numerous, but they are easy to pick up. Cf., e.g., Eastern New England sour-milk cheese, Inland Northern Dutch cheese, New York City pot cheese for Standard American cottage cheese (творог).

Ағылшын филологиясы кафедрасының мәжілісінде талқыланған «19» наурыз 2015 ж., № 8 хаттама

Кафедра меңгерушісі Б.Д. Тұрлыбеков
Word-groups.doc
Word-groups.

The structure and meaning.

1) The structure is shown be a syntactic formula (синтаксическая структура словосочетания). It shows the structure of word-groups by the order of the arrangement of their components indicating them as parts of speech (V+N = te release a prisoner, to run a factory).

2) By using syntactic patterns (синтаксическая модель). They describe the word groups in relation to the head word (to release, to run).

The word-groups have lexical and structural meaning.

Lexical meaning is defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words. Idiomatic meaning — the total change of the initial combined meaning (to catch smb red-handed)

Structural meaning is conveyed by the pattern of arrangement of its constituents (school grammar - grammar school).

Classification.

Structural classification:

- Predicative — have syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence (the horse has run away)

- Non-predicative: subordinate and coordinate.

Subordinate word-groups — consist of a head-word and words subordinate to it (to release a prisoner). In coordinate word-groups — all elements are equal (brother and sister).

If the word-group is used in the same function as one of its members — endocentric. Exocentric — are those that are used differently from either of its members.

Semantic classification:

- Lexically motivated — the meaning of a word-group is equal to the combined meaning of its components.

- Lexically non-motivated — the word-groups whose meaning is different from the combined meaning of its components (Hobson's choice — нет выбора; the horse has run away — motivated, the horse has bolted — non-motivated).

LECTURE 8: THE WORD-GROUP THEORY

1. Definition and general characteristics of the word-group.

There are a lot of definitions concerning the word-group. The most adequate one seems to be the following: the word-group is a combination of at least two notional words which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. According to some other scholars (the majority of Western scholars and professors B.Ilyish and V.Burlakova – in Russia), a combination of a notional word with a function word (on the table) may be treated as a word-group as well. The problem is disputable as the role of function words is to show some abstract relations and they are devoid of nominative power. On the other hand, such combinations are syntactically bound and they should belong somewhere.

General characteristics of the word-group are:

1) As a naming unit it differs from a compound word because the number of constituents in a word-group corresponds to the number of different denotates:

a black bird – чорний птах (2), a blackbird – дрізд (1);

a loud speaker (2), a loudspeaker (1).

2) Each component of the word-group can undergo grammatical changes without destroying the identity of the whole unit: to see a house - to see houses.

3) A word-group is a dependent syntactic unit, it is not a communicative unit and has no intonation of its own.

2. Classification of word-groups.

Word-groups can be classified on the basis of several principles:

1. According to the type of syntagmatic relations: coordinate(you and me), subordinate (to see a house, a nice dress), predicative (him coming, for him to come),

2. According to the structure: simple (all elements are obligatory), expanded(to read and translate the text – expanded elements are equal in rank), extended (a word takes a dependent element and this dependent element becomes the head for another word: a beautiful flower – a very beautiful flower).

3. Subordinate word-groups.

Subordinate word-groups are based on the relations of dependence between the constituents. This presupposes the existence of a governing

Element which is called the headand the dependent element which is called the adjunct (in noun-phrases) or the complement (in verb-phrases).

According to the nature of their heads, subordinate word-groups fall into noun-phrases (NP) – a cup of tea, verb-phrases (VP) – to run fast, to see a house, adjective phrases (AP) – good for you, adverbial phrases (DP) – so quickly, pronoun phrases (IP) – something strange, nothing todo.

The formation of the subordinate word-group depends on the valency of its constituents. Valencyis a potential ability of words to combine. Actual realization of valency in speech is called combinability.

4. The noun-phrase (NP).

Noun word-groups are widely spread in English. This may be explained by a potential ability of the noun to go into combinations with practically all parts of speech. The NP consists of a noun-head and an adjunct or adjuncts with relations of modification between them. Three types of modification are distinguished here:

1. Premodification that comprises all the units placed before the head:two smart hard-workingstudents.Adjuncts used in pre-head position are called pre-posedadjuncts.

2. Postmodification that comprises all the units all the units placed after the head: studentsfrom Boston. Adjuncts used in post-head position are called post-posed adjuncts.

3. Mixed modification that comprises all the units in both pre-head and post-head position:two smart hard-workingstudentsfrom Boston.

5. Noun-phrases with pre-posed adjuncts.

In noun-phrases with pre-posed modifiers we generally find adjectives, pronouns, numerals, participles, gerunds, nouns, nouns in the genitive case (see the table). According to their position all pre-posed adjuncts may be divided into pre-adjectivals and adjectiavals. The position of adjectivals is usually right before the noun-head. Pre-adjectivals occupy the position before adjectivals. They fall into two groups: a) lim iters(tothis group belong mostly particles): just, only, even, etc. and b) determiners (articles, possessive pronouns, quantifiers – the first, the last).

Premodification of nouns by nouns (N+N) is one of the most striking features about the grammatical organization of English. It is one of devices to make our speech both laconic and expressive at the same time. Noun-adjunct groups result from different kinds of transformational shifts. NPs with pre-posed adjuncts can signal a striking variety of meanings:

world peace – peace all over the world

silver box – a box made of silver
table lamp – lamp for tables
table legs – the legs of the table
river sand – sand from the river
school child – a child who goes to school

The grammatical relations observed in NPs with pre-posed adjuncts may convey the following meanings:

1. subject-predicate relations: weather change;

2. object relations: health service, women hater;

3. adverbial relations:

a) of time: morning star,

b) place: world peace, country house,
c) comparison: button eyes,
d) purpose: tooth brush.

It is important to remember that the noun-adjunct is usually marked by a stronger stress than the head.

Of special interest is a kind of ‘grammatical idiom’ where the modifier is reinterpreted into the head:a devil of a man, an angel of a girl.

6. Noun-phrases with post-posed adjuncts.

NPs with post-posed may be classified according to the way of connection into prepositionless andprepositional. The basic prepositionless NPs with post-posed adjuncts are: Nadj. – tea strong, NVen – the shape unknown, NVing – the girl smiling, ND – the man downstairs, NVinf – a book to read, NNum – room ten.

The pattern of basic prepositional NPs is N1 prep. N2. The most common preposition here is ‘of’ – a cup of tea, a man of courage. It may have quite different meanings: qualitative- a woman of sense, predicative – the pleasure of the company, objective – the reading of the newspaper,partitive– the roof of the house.

7. The verb-phrase.

The VP is a definite kind of the subordinate phrase with the verb as the head. The verb is considered to be the semantic and structural centre not only of the VP but of the whole sentence as the verb plays an important role in making up primary predication that serves the basis for the sentence. VPs are more complex than NPs as there are a lot of ways in which verbs may be combined in actual usage. Valent properties of different verbs and their semantics make it possible to divide all the verbs into several groups depending on the nature of their complements (see the table ‘Syntagmatic properties of verbs’, Lecture 6).

8. Classification of verb-phrases.

VPs can be classified according to the nature of their complements – verb complements may be nominal (to see a house) and adverbial (to behave well). Consequently, we distinguish nominal, adverbial and mixedcomplementation.

Nominal complementation takes place when one or more nominal complements (nouns or pronouns) are obligatory for the realization of potential valency of the verb: to give smth. to smb., to phone smb., to hear smth.(smb.), etc.

Adverbial complementation occurs when the verb takes one or more adverbial elements obligatory for the realization of its potential valency: He behaved well, I live …in Kyiv (here).

Mixed complementation – both nominal and adverbial elements are obligatory: He put his hat on he table (nominal-adverbial).

According to the structure VPs may be basic or simple (to take a book) – all elements are obligatory; expanded (to readand translatethe text, to read booksand newspapers) andextended(to read anEnglishbook).

9. Predicative word-groups.

Predicative word combinations are distinguished on the basis of secondary predication. Like sentences, predicative word-groups are binary in their structure but actually differ essentially in their organization. The sentence is an independent communicative unit based on primary predication while the predicative word-group is a dependent syntactic unit that makes up a part of the sentence. The predicative word-group consists of a nominal element (noun, pronoun) and a non-finite form of the verb: N + Vnon-fin. There are Gerundial, Infinitive and Participial word-groups (complexes) in the English language: his reading, for me to know, the boy running, etc.

Word-groups. Syntactic bonds between words.
A sentence is built up of words and word-groups. A word-group is a unit formed by a combination of two or more notional words, which does not constitute a sentence. A word- group differs from a sentence in as much as it does not perform a communication. A word- group as such has no intonation, intonation being one of the most important properties of a sentence. In the sentence - A week of heavy reading had passed since that evening. - There are the following word-groups:

1. A week of heavy reading = a noun group;

2. had passed since that evening = a verb group.

Grammar is concerned with free syntactical word-groups formed each time a new, and is not concerned with phraseological phrases belonging to the vocabulary of a language. Compare: an interesting book; to run quickly (free word-groups) first aid; to take the floor ( set phrases)

There are three main types of syntactic connections (i.e. bonds) between words: subordination, coordination and predication. Accordingly, word-groups in modern English are classified into the following types: subordinate, coordinate and predicative word-groups.

1. Subordinate word-groups consist of words which are syntactically unequal as one of the constituent elements, called the «head», is modified by a dependent element, called an «adjunct». Due to this feature, subordinate word-groups can be called «dominational.»

Subordinate connection is achieved by different classes of words, prepositions (i.e. prepositional government) and word-order.

E.g.: a pretty girl ( girl = a head-word, pretty = an adjunct, i.e. modifier); a book of stories ( book = a head-word, of stories = prepositional adjunct);

The head and the adjunct of a subordinate word-group are its immediate constituents. The head is that part of a subordinate word-group which can replace the whole word-group in a sentence. The adjunct is the part of a subordinate word- group which cannot be substituted for the head.

According to the head, subordinate word-groups can be classified into:

· noun-groups: a sleepless night ;

· verb-groups: to work hard ;

· adjective-groups: extremely clever ;

· adverb-groups: quite near, very quickly ;

· pronoun-groups: some of the students.

Noun-groups and verb-groups are the most wide-spread types of word-groups in modern English. According to the structure, subordinate word-groups are classified into:

· simple (unextended) word-groups, consisting of two notional words: an interesting book, very tired, etc.

· complex (extended) word-groups, comprising more than two notional words: a very interesting book; to work pretty hard, etc.

2. Coordinate word-groups comprise elements which have the same syntactic function, being related to one another on an equal rank. Depending on this feature, this kind of word-groups can be called «equipotent.» For instance: Nick and John; day and night; came and went; tired but happy, etc.

3. Predicative word-groups are formed by a combination of a noun phrase or a pronoun in the objective case and a non-finite verbal form, reflecting the relationship between the logical subject and the predicate. Such are infinitival, gerundial or participial constructions. For instance:

I saw him crossing the street. ( him crossing the street = predicative word-group in the function of complex object); They got into the car and drove away, the dog running after them barking. (the dog running after them barking = predicative word-group, so called Nominative Absolute Participial Construction in the function of adverbial modifier of attending circumstances).
Conclusion
Conclusions

In the course of the present report writing we have specified the definition of the word-group and determined its general characteristics. Specific attention has been drawn to the classification of word-groups. We have thoroughly analyzed semantic features of word-groups, their motivated and non-motivated types and their specific subtype, i.e. phraseological word-groups.

Having completed the report writing, we have come to the following conclusions.

The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected.

We have concluded that according to the type of syntagmatic relations, word-groups can be coordinate, subordinate and predicative, according to the structure they are divided into simple, expanded and extended.

The lexical meaning of the word groups is the combined lexical meaning of the component words. The meaning of the word groups is motivated by the meanings of the component members and is supported by the structural pattern.

The term motivation is used to denote the relationship existing between the phonemic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand and its meaning on the other.

We have come to the conclusion, that here are three main types of motivation: 1) phonetical; 2) morphological; 3) semantic.

We have concluded, phraseological units are created from free word-groups. But in the course of time some words - constituents of phraseological units may drop out of the language; the situation in which the phraseological unit was formed can be forgotten, motivation can be lost and these phrases become phraseological fusions.

Bibliography

1. Арнольд И.В. Аспекты семантических исследований. - М., 1980.

2. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. - М., 1973.

3. Кунин А.В. Фразеология современного английского языка. - М., 1970

4. Маковский М.М. Английская этимология. - М., 1986

5. Мешков О.Д. Словообразование современного английского языка. -М., 1976

6. Мостовий М.I. Лексикологiя англiйськоi мови. - Харькiв, 1993

7. Никитин М.В. Лексическое значение слова (структура и комбинаторика). - М., 1983 Смирницкий А.И. Лексикология английского языка. - М., 1956

8. Никитин М.В. О предмете и понятиях комбинаторной семантики / Проблемы лексической и грамматической семасиологии. Владимир, 1974 год выпуска

9. Смит Л.П. Фразеология английского языка. - М., 1959

10. Старикова Е.Н.. Раевская Н.Н., Медведева Л.М. Лингвистические чтения. Проблемы словообразования. Лингвистика текста. - К., 1985

11. Телия В.Н. Типы языковых значений. Связанное значение слова в языке - М., 1981 Теоретические проблемы социальной лингвистики. - М., 1981

12. Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка. - Минск, 1992

13. Швейцер А.Д. Очерк современного английского языка США. - М.. 1963

14. Akhmanova O. Lexicology. Theory and Method. - M., 1972 Ginsburg R.S. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M., 1979.

15. Arnold I.V. The English Word. - M., 1986

16. Kuznetsova V.S. Notes on English Lexicology.- K., 1968.

17. L.P. Smith, Semantics. An introduction to the science of meaning. Oxford University Press, 1962.

18. V.H. Collins. The principle of semantics. Glasgow: Glasgow University Press, 1978.

19. Vinogradov V.V. Pixon P.G. Handbook of American Idioms and Idiomatic Usage, 1973.