Theme: the numeral and the pronoun

THE NUMERAL
The numeral is one of the notional parts of speech, characterized by 1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number', 2) the category of numerical qualification represented in opposemes like seven — seventh, nine — ninth, 3) its unilateral combinability with nouns (three children, he third child), 4) such typical stem-building suffixes as -teen, -ty, 5) its functioning as an attribute, less frequently as some other parts of the sentence(subject, object, adverbial modifierwhen proceeded by prepositions, etc.)
As to their structural features numerals may be of the following types:

1. 
   simple – one two three, four five,ten, etc.
   
2. 
   derived – thirteen, fourteen, twenty, thirty, fouty, fifty, sixty, forth, fifth, seventh, eighth, etc.
   
3. 
   compound – thirty one, fourty two, sixty five, two hundred, four thousand, etc.
   
4. 
   composite – three hundred and five, four thousand and ten, two thousand, nine hundred and ninety-five, one billion nine hundred thousand and twenty, etc.
   

The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number' is not to be confused with the grammatical meaning of 'number'.
a) The former is the generalization of a multitude of lexical meanings of individual numerals (five, ten, fifty-seven, etc.). The latter is the generalization of only two grammatical meanings: "singular" and "plural".
b) The plural number, as in boys, shows indefinite plurality, whereas the meanings of numerals, as in twenty, forty are definite plurality. c) Like any grammatical meaning the "plural" of nouns is relative, dependent and indirect . The lexical "plural" of a numeral like eight is not relative, being as much correlated with the "singular" of one as with the "plural" of seven, or nine, or eighty. The "plural" of eight is independent inasmuch as it is the lexical meaning of an independent word. This reflection of reality is direct as that of any lexical meaning.
Numerals are usually divided into two groups —cardinal numerals (one, five, twenty) and ordinal numeral (first fifth, twentieth). The former denote some numerical quantity, the latter — some numerical order. The difference between these groups is sometimes exaggerated to such an extent that they are treated as belonging to different parts of speech. For instance, A. I. Smirnitsky is of the opinion that only cardinal numerals form a separate part of speech, whereas ordinal numerals are adjectives.
Language facts do not support such views.
1. Each cardinal numeral has a corresponding ordina one. Cf . seven — seventh, thirty — thirtieth, eighty-four —eighty-fourth, etc.
2. Both cardinals and ordinals qualify substances quantitatively (and orderly –HGM), as distinct from adjectives whose qualification is qualitative.
3. Cardinals often denote numerical order like ordinals Cf . lesson five = the fifth lesson.
4. Only numerals have the suffix -th. Nouns denoting number (gross, score, etc.) cannot be associated with it/
Formations of the type *grossth, *scoreth are impossible
5. If -th were regarded as a stem-building suffix, it would be the only suffix of this kind in the English language embracing all the words of a part of speech (in our case — numerals) minus three (one, two, three).
6. The relation between ten and tenth resembles the relation between boy and boy's. As words of the boy's type are mostly used in the function of attributes, they might also be declared adjectives.
In our opinion, the pair “ten — tenth” forms an opposeme of the grammatical category of numerical qualification. The lexical meaning of the two words expressed by the lexical morpheme ten- is the same. They are opposed only grammatically by the opposition of the zero morpheme in ten and the -th morpheme in tenth. This opposition is as regular as that of the zero morpheme of the singular and the-(e)s morpheme of the plural. Even more so, in fact, because there are few exceptions. The meaning of the zero morpheme is that of 'numerical quantity', and the meaning of the morpheme -th is that of 'numerical order'. Like every grammatical meaning, the meaning of "numerical order" is relative (always correlated with the meaning of 'numerical quantity') and dependent on 'the lexical meaning of the word, i. e. the suffix -th does not express "numerical order" in general, but the order of the number named by the lexical part of the word.
In the opposemes one — first, two — second, three — third the meaning of numerical qualification is expressed by means of suppletivity and sound interchange. The words half, quarter, zero, nought, gross, score, etc. which have no ordinal opposites, but possess plural opposites are nouns, not numerals.
The combinability of numerals is rather limited. As a rule, they form combinations with nouns. Numerals usually precede the nouns they modify, but when a cardinal denotes numerical order it follows the noun(bus 10, group 12, room 9 , etc,). Numerals are, naturally, associated with countable nouns. In cases like he first' love, the first snow instances of the phenomena are meant. The definite article in combinations like the second dance is easily accounted for, as the numeral singles out the object or event by indicating its position in a series. Numerals are, as a rule, not modified by other words( BUT: How about the article? It does modify te numerals(HGM: The three, The four, The third? The fourth, etc.) This negative combinability is also a characteristic feature of the part of speech.
As to their stem structure English numerals fall into a) simple or root numerals, such as one, two, three (up to twelve), b) derivative numerals formed with the help of the suf­fixes -teen (from thirteen to nineteen), -ty (from twenty to ninety), c) compound numerals (from twenty-one to ninety-nine) and d) composite numerals, such as nine hundred and three. It is owing to the remarkable way of forming composite numerals that an unlimited multitude of numbers can be named with the help of a limited number of words. It has been pointed out that numerals have a peculiar manner of building up compound and composite sterns not observed in any other part of speech.
When a numeral of a lower rank follows a higher numeral their numbers are added, as in eighty-one — eighty of one. (See А. И. С м и р н и ц к и й, op. cit., р. 165.)
If the order is reverse, the numbers are multiplied E. g. five hundred = five X hundred. In two hundred and nine multiplication and addition are combined.
Numerals are easily substantivized, acquiring noun features.
Let us by way of illustration take the following sentence from a school text-book in arithmetic: "In order to add two numbers add the units of one number to the units of the other, the tens to the tens, the hundreds to the hundreds, etc." Here the numerals tens, hundreds have many features in common with the noun units. They have the lexico-grammatical meaning of 'substance', the 'plural', suffix -s\ they have left-hand connections with articles, prepositions; they are used in the functions of objects. Other instances of the substanti­vization of numerals are: Arrival of Moscow eleven. (The Worker). Two can play at that game. We are s e v e n. Form fours!
The analysis of numeral grammemes in speech presents a picture largely similar to that displayed by adjectival -grammemes. The frequency of their occurrence in the analyzed modern literary texts is as follows:
cardinal grammemes — 84 per cent
ordinal grammemes — 16 per cent,
the unmarked members of the opposeme as less specific (here as elsewhere) constituting the bulk of numerals used in speech flow.
Below are combinability patterns of numeral grammemes arranged in tabular form.