The Willpower Instinct: How Self-Control Works, Why It Matters, and What You Can Do To Get More of It

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
106 (2009): 8865–70.
Page 40—Breathing and heart rate variability:
Song, H.-S., and P. M. Lehrer. “The Effects of
Specific Respiratory Rates on Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability.” 
Applied Psychophysiology
and Biofeedback
28 (2003): 13–23.
Page 40—Breathing helps PTSD and substance abuse:
Zucker, T., K. Samuelson, F. Muench, M.
Greenberg, and R. Gevirtz. “The Effects of Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Biofeedback on Heart Rate
Variability and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Pilot Study.” 
Applied Psychophysiology
and Biofeedback
34 (2009): 135–43.
Pages 42–43—Exercise as self-control training:
Oaten, M., and K. Cheng. “Longitudinal Gains in
Self-Regulation from Regular Physical Exercise.” 
British Journal of Health Psychology
11 (2006)
717–33.
Page 42—Exercise and cravings:
Janse Van Rensburg, K., A. Taylor, and T. Hodgson. “The
Effects of Acute Exercise on Attentional Bias Towards Smoking-Related Stimuli During Temporary
Abstinence from Smoking.” 
Addiction
104 (2009): 1910–17. See also Taylor, A. H., and A. J. Oliver.
“Acute Effects of Brisk Walking on Urges to Eat Chocolate, Affect, and Responses to a Stressor and
Chocolate Cue. An Experimental Study.” 
Appetite
52 (2009): 155–60.
Page 42—Exercise is an antidepressant:
Nabkasorn, C., N. Miyai, A. Sootmongkol, S. Jun-
prasert, H. Yamamoto, M. Arita, and K. Miyashita. “Effects of Physical Exercise on Depression,
Neuroendocrine Stress Hormones and Physiological Fitness in Adolescent Females with Depressive
Symptoms.” 
The European Journal of Public Health
16 (2006): 179–84.
Page 43—Exercise and heart rate variability:
Hansen, A. L., B. H. Johnsen, J. J. Sollers, K.
Stenvik, and J. F. Thayer. “Heart Rate Variability and Its Relation to Prefrontal Cognitive Function:
The Effects of Training and Detraining.” 
European Journal of Applied Physiology
93 (2004): 263–
72.
Page 43—Exercise and the brain:
Colcombe, S. J., K. I. Erickson, N. Raz, A. G. Webb, N. J.
Cohen, E. McAuley, and A. F. Kramer. “Aerobic Fitness Reduces Brain Tissue Loss in Aging
Humans.” 
The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences
58
(2003): M176–M180. See also Colcombe, S. J., K. I. Erickson, P. E. Scalf, J. S. Kim, R. Prakash, E.
McAuley, S. Elavsky, et al. “Aerobic Exercise Training Increases Brain Volume in Aging Humans.”
The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences
61 (2006): 1166–
70. See also Hill-man, C. H., K. I. Erickson, and A. F. Kramer. “Be Smart, Exercise Your Heart:
Exercise Effects on Brain and Cognition.” 
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
9 (2008): 58–65.
Page 43—Five minutes of exercise helps:
Barton, J., and J. Pretty. “What Is the Best Dose of
Nature and Green Exercise for Improving Mental Health? A Multi-Study Analysis.” 
Environmental
Science & Technology
44 (2010): 3947–55.
Page 46—Sleep and energy:
Spiegel, K., E. Tasali, R. Leproult, and E. Van Cauter. “Effects of
Poor and Short Sleep on Glucose Metabolism and Obesity Risk.” 
Nature Reviews Endocrinology
5
(2009): 253–61. See also Knutson, K. L., and E. Van Cauter. “Associations Between Sleep Loss and
Increased Risk of Obesity and Diabetes.” 
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1129 (2008):
287–304.
Page 46—Sleep deprivation and brain function:
Durmer, J. S., and D. F. Dinges. “Neu-
rocognitive Consequences of Sleep Deprivation.” 
Seminars in Neurology
25 (2005): 117–29.
Page 46—Mild prefrontal dysfunction:
Killgore, W. D. S., E. T. Kahn-Greene, E. L. Lipizzi, R. A.
Newman, G. H. Kamimori, and T. J. Balkin. “Sleep Deprivation Reduces Perceived Emotional

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Intelligence and Constructive Thinking Skills.” 
Sleep Medicine
9 (2008): 517–26.
Pages 46–47—Sleep deprivation and alcohol intoxication:
Elmenhorst, D., E.-M. Elmenhorst, N.
Luks, H. Maass, E.-W. Mueller, M. Vejvoda, J. Wenzel, and A. Samel. “Performance Impairment
During Four Days Partial Sleep Deprivation Compared with the Acute Effects of Alcohol and
Hypoxia.” 
Sleep Medicine
10 (2009): 189–97.
Page 46—Sleep deprivation and stress:
Yoo, S.-S., N. Gujar, P. Hu, F. A. Jolesz, and M. P.
Walker. “The Human Emotional Brain without Sleep—A Prefrontal Amygdala Disconnect.” 
Current
Biology
17 (2007): R877–78.
Page 47—Recovery from poor sleep:
Altena, E., Y. D. Van Der Werf, E. J. Sanz-Arigita, et al.
“Prefrontal Hypoactivation and Recovery in Insomnia.” 
Sleep 31
(2008): 1271–76.
Page 47—Meditation, sleep, and substance abuse:
Britton, W. B., R. R. Bootzin, J. C. Cousins, B.
P. Hasler, T. Peck, and S. L. Shapiro. “The Contribution of Mindfulness Practice to a Multicomponent
Behavioral Sleep Intervention Following Substance Abuse Treatment in Adolescents: A Treatment-
Development Study.” 
Substance Abuse
31 (2010): 86–97.
Page 49—Self-control and immune function:
Segerstrom, S. C., J. K. Hardy, D. R. Evans, N. F.
Winters. “Pause and Plan: Self-Regulation and the Heart.” In: Gendolla, G., and R. Wright, eds.
Motivational Perspectives on Cardiovascular Response
. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association, in press. See also Segerstrom, S. C. “Resources, Stress, and Immunity: An Ecological
Perspective on Human Psychoneuroimmunology.” 
Annals of Behavioral Medicine
40 (2010): 114–
125.
Page 50—Relaxation benefits:
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., L. Christian, H. Preston, C. R. Houts, W. B.
Malarkey, C. F. Emery, and R. Glaser. “Stress, Inflammation, and Yoga Practice.” 
Psychosomatic
Medicine
72 (2010): 113–21.
Page 50—Athletes recover faster:
Martarelli, D., M. Cocchioni, S. Scuri, and P. Pompei.
“Diaphragmatic Breathing Reduces Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress.” 
EvidenceBased
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
2011 (2011): 1-10.
Page 50—Physiological relaxation response:
Benson, H. 
The Relaxation Response
. New York:
Morrow, 1975.
Page 52—Stress survey:
American Psychological Association. 
“Stress in America.” 1–64:
Washington DC, 2010.
Page 52—9/11 and stress:
Lampert, R., S. J. Baron, C. A. McPherson, and F. A. Lee. “Heart Rate
Variability During the Week of September 11, 2001.” 
Journal of the American Medical Association
288 (2002): 575.
Page 52—9/11 and substance use:
Vlahov, D., S. Galea, H. Resnick, J. Ahern, J. A. Bosca-rino,
M. Bucuvalas, J. Gold, and D. Kilpatrick. “Increased Use of Cigarettes, Alcohol, and Marijuana
among Manhattan, New York, Residents After the September 11 th Terrorist Attacks.” 
American
Journal of Epidemiology
155 (2002): 988–96.
Page 52—Economic crisis and stress:
“WASA Snacking Satisfaction Survey.” Survey conducted
2/10–2/23/2009 
by 
Kelton 
Research, 
New 
York.
www.wasacrispbread.com/downloads/SurveyFactSheet.pdf
. See also American Legacy Foundation.
“Current Economic Situation Prompts Increased Smoking, Delay in Quit Attempts Middle and Low-
Income Americans Hit Hardest.” 11/7/2008. 
www.legacyforhealth.org/2753.aspx
.
Page 52—Americans sleeping less:
National Sleep Foundation: Sleep in America Poll.
Washington, (2008).
Page 52—Sleep deprivation and obesity:
Leproult, R., and E. Van Cauter. “Role of Sleep and

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Sleep Loss in Hormonal Release and Metabolism,” ed. S. Loche, M. Cappa, L. Ghizzoni, M.
Maghnie, and M. O. Savage. 
Pediatric Neuroendocrinology: Endocrine Development
17 (2010):
11–21.
Page 53—Sleep deprivation mimics ADHD:
Brennan, A. R., and A. F. T. Arnsten. “Neuronal
Mechanisms Underlying Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.” 
Annals of the New York Academy
of Sciences
1129 (2008): 236–45.

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