The shadow economy

Table 21. Proportion of employees not covered by social security contributions.

Country	Proportion of non-insured employees
	Sug'urtalanmagan xodimlarning ulushi
	2007	2008
Austria	35.4	34.5
Belgium	38.8	36.2
Czech Republic	40.8	40.4
Estonia	34.6	33.9
Finland	23.0	23.5
France	51.9	-
Greece	37.1	37.3
Hungary	40.6	42.4
Iceland	13.4	13.3
Ireland	39.8	40.3
Italy	40.0	39.3
Luxembourg	34.6	32.6
Netherlands	17.7	21.6
Norway	12.2	13.2
Poland	65.3	57.0
Portugal	35.1	38.5
Slovak Republic	39.1	38.5
Slovenia	24.7	25.2
Spain	41.5	41.4
Sweden	22.7	22.0

Source: OECD calculation based on EU-SILC 2007 and 2008, quoted in OECD (2011: 18, Table 1).
OECD hisob-kitobi OECDda bildirilgan EU-SILC 2007 va 2008 ma'lumotlariga asoslanadi (2011: 18, 1-jadval).
It does not follow that all those who are not paying social security contributions are working in the shadow economy. There are likely to be at least four categories of individuals who are not paying social security contributions: those who are evading contributions; those who work in sectors where contributions are not required and formal employment arrangements are not compulsory (for example, in agriculture in many countries); those whose earnings are insufficient to require them to pay contributions; and those who are self-employed and neither make contributions nor receive benefits.
Bundan kelib chiqadiki, ijtimoiy sug'urta badallarini to'lamagan har bir kishi yashirin iqtisodiyotda ishlaydi. Ijtimoiy sug'urta badallarini to'lamaydigan kamida to'rtta toifadagi odamlar bor: badal to'lamaydiganlar; badallar talab qilinmaydigan va rasmiy ish bilan taʼminlanmaydigan sohalarda ishlayotganlar (masalan, koʻpgina mamlakatlarda qishloq xoʻjaligi); daromadlari badallarni to'lashni talab qilish uchun etarli bo'lmaganlar; va o'z-o'zini ish bilan band bo'lgan va hissa qo'shmagan yoki nafaqa olmaydiganlar.
Table 21 shows the proportion of employees not paying social security contributions for a selection of European Union countries. In some countries, this share is very high. The highest level is in Poland, with well over 50 per cent of the workforce not paying contributions, followed by France and Spain. It is highly likely that many of these workers are operating in the shadow economy.
21-jadvalda Evropa Ittifoqining ayrim mamlakatlarida ijtimoiy sug'urta badallarini to'lamaydigan ishchilar ulushi ko'rsatilgan. Ba'zi mamlakatlarda bu nisbat juda yuqori. Eng yuqori ko'rsatkich Polshada bo'lib, u erda ishchi kuchining 50% dan ortig'i badal to'lamaydi, undan keyin Frantsiya va Ispaniya. Bu ishchilarning ko'pchiligi yashirin iqtisodiyotda ishlashlari ehtimoli katta.

Strengthening the contributory principle within social security systems – or privatisation – is likely to reduce the size of the shadow economy. Individuals who undertake shadow work will then lose social security entitlements as well as avoiding taxes. The contributory principle can be strengthened by ensuring that pensions are closely linked to the number of years worked; by ensuring that unconditional unemployment and sickness payments are provided only to people with a contribution record; and by ensuring that contributions match benefit scales (either by having flat-rate contributions for flat-rate benefits or earnings related contributions for earnings-related benefits).38³⁸. Privatisation can be facilitated by allowing people to ‘opt out’ of social security systems and make their own private arrangements.

Ijtimoiy sug'urta badallarini kuchaytirish - yoki xususiylashtirish - yashirin iqtisodiyot hajmini qisqartirishi mumkin. Yashirin mehnat bilan shug'ullanuvchi shaxslar ijtimoiy himoya huquqlarini yo'qotadilar, shuningdek soliq to'lashdan bo'yin tovlaydilar. Pensiyalarni ishlagan yillari bilan chambarchas bog‘lash orqali badal to‘lash tamoyilini mustahkamlash mumkin; shartsiz ishsizlik va kasallik nafaqalari faqat sug‘urta stajiga ega bo‘lgan shaxslarga to‘lanishini ta’minlash orqali; va badallarning nafaqalar shkalasiga mos kelishini ta'minlash orqali (belgilangan to'lovlar uchun belgilangan badallar orqali yoki daromadga asoslangan nafaqalar uchun daromadga asoslangan badallar orqali).38 Xususiylashtirishni odamlarga ijtimoiy ta'minot tizimlaridan "boshlash" va o'zlarining shaxsiy choralarini ko'rish imkonini berish orqali osonlashtirish mumkin.