The Russian Federation Ministry of Education

3.1.3. Substitutes. Substitutes can be lexical and contextual. Lexical substitute is replacement of single concrete words or word-combinations of SL with that of TL which are not their lexicographic correspondence, i.e. they have other lexical meaning than the words of ST. Characteristics of the context can force a translator refuse to use both variant and equivalent correspondences in translation. In that case he/she looks for the variant of translation that suits for the concrete case. That kind of translation is named contextual substitute.
# …he held himself with an arched back to keep his belly from sagging. (Ch.9, p.81). - …и держался неестественно прямо, чтобы не отвисал живот. (С.67).
# “Oh, well, it’s no good crying over spilt milk.” (Ch.10, p.83). – “Потерянного не воротишь.”(C.69).
Nature of a contextual substitute depends on characteristics of individual context and a translator has every time to look for special ways of translation. This task requires creative solution, therefore, it’s not possible to have fundamental. Nevertheless, there are same methods which are used for creating of contextual substitutes:
1) method of concretization;
2) method of generalization;
3) method of antonymic translation;
4) method of compensation;
5) method of semantic development;
6) method of complete interpretation.
4.2. Methods of Creating of Contextual Substitutes.
3.2.1. Method of Concretization. Concretization represents substitution of a word of ST with more large meaning on the word of TL with narrower one. There are a lot of words in the English language with general wide meaning which should be concretized in translation. For example:
come – прибывать, приезжать, приходить, подходить, прилетать и т.д.
leave – уезжать, покидать, уходить, оставлять, улетать, вылетать и т.д.
provide – заготовлять, сберегать, снабжать, доставлять, обеспечивать, давать средства, принимать меры, готовиться, предусматривать, обуславливать и т.д.
# …two of her front teeth were missing but, notwithstanding Julia’s offer, repeated for years, to provide her with new ones she would not have them replaced. (Ch.10, p.84).
…у нее не хватало спереди двух зубов, но, несмотря на неоднократное предложение Джулии дать ей деньги на новые зубы, Эви не желала их вставлять. (С.69).
By the example of the word thing that is met quite often in the novel it is seen how this word is concretized in different contexts.
# “Extravagant little thing, aren’t you?...” (Ch.6, p.56). – “Мотовочка, вот ты кто.” (C.49).
# “We know a thing or two about financing plays now.” (Ch.8, p.69). – “Мы с тобой уже хорошо знаем, при каких условиях финансируются пьесы.” (C.58).
# …and she thought of him as a nice old thing. (Ch.11, p.93). - …и она думала о нем, как о добром старом дядюшке. (С.75).
# If he tried that sort of thing she’d play the outrage heroine on him, … (Ch.11, p. 93). – Если он попробует с ней такие штучки, она разыграет оскорбленную добродетель…(С.76).
# Then Julia did a disgraceful thing. (Ch.11, p.94). – И тут Джулия совершила позорный поступок. (С.77).
# When tempers were frayed his good humour, his real kindliness, smoothed thing over. (Ch.9, p.79). – Когда у них начинали сдавать нервы, его добродушие, его искренняя доброжелательность сглаживали все острые углы. (С.66).
# But he was not a man who let a thing drop when he had set his mind to it. (Ch.8, p.69). – Но Майкл был не из тех, кто легко отступается от того, что задумал. (С.58).