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3.The Factors Influencing the Use of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
In language learning, vocabulary plays an important role, as pointed out by David Wilkins: ‘without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.Many researches have been done in vocabulary learning that are aiming to find the differences between good language learners and bad language learners. How do good learners achieve better than bad learners? Thornburry believed that good learners know how to learn, achieve a measure of autonomy and develop their own techniques or strategies⁷.
Being aware of vocabulary learning has been indicated as very important. Decarrico believed that vocabulary learning strategies will help the students in finding out the meaning of new words and consolidating them once it has been understood. Therefore, it is very crucial to understand the strategies that conscious or unconsciously applied by good language learners. There are very common strategies in learning vocabulary, such as mnemonic devices, vocabulary notebooks, guessing meaning from context, and verbal and written repetition. The awareness of vocabulary learning strategies will help second language learners to improve vocabulary learning and enhance lexical competence. Moreover, knowing the factors that are influencing the use of vocabulary learning strategies can help teachers and researchers to design appropriate materials and activities.
The use of vocabulary learning strategies is influenced by several factors. Nyikos and Fan identified the four main factors that influence the use of vocabulary learning strategies, including learner’s level of proficiency, individual variation and gender, strategy development and proficiency, and learning environment. The aim of this study is to broaden current knowledge of the factors that are playing important roles in affecting students’ vocabulary learning strategies and further understand the most successful strategies used by good language learners.

Even though students are studying in the same environment and receiving the same learning material from the teacher, each of them might show different strategies in learning vocabulary. Their choices are fully affected by the factors which influence the use of vocabulary learning strategies. Knowing and understanding why certain factors become the reason of vocabulary learning strategies choice will benefit the teachers and researchers so that they can design appropriate material for the students. Therefore, this research will seek to answer the following questions:

Many studies have been published on the importance of strategies in language learning, however, there are still some critical issues in finding out the factors that influence their use. Do good learners apply different strategies from bad learners? What are the strategies that applied by good language learners and the elements that are influential on the use of those strategies?
Since there is a high interest in finding out what strategies applied by students when they are learning vocabulary, several research has been done in this area. Decarrico (2001) provided guessing meaning from context, mnemonic devices, and vocabulary notebooks. Meanwhile, Thornburry (2002) added the list by pointing out several strategies that are used by good vocabulary learners which include using mnemonics (using keyword technique or visual element), word cards/ flashcards, guessing from context, coping strategies for production, using dictionaries, spelling rules, keeping records, and motivation. Yet, Lawson and Hogben (1996) conducted a research which came out with more interesting result. The participants (17 female students learning Italian) showed the use of strategies such as repetition (reading of related words, simple rehearsal, writing of word and meaning, cumulative rehearsal, testing, subtotal), word feature analysis (spelling, word classification, suffix), simple elaboration (sentence translation, simple use of context, appearance similarity, sound link), and complex elaboration (complex use of context, paraphrase, mnemonic).
Oxford (1990) built a very comprehensive list of strategies that are classified into two big groups which are strategies for the discovery of a new word’s meaning and strategies for consolidating a word after it has been encountered (Schmitt, 1997, pp.207-208). Under the big two umbrellas, there are several kinds of strategy groups and the strategies themselves:
Determination strategies, including: analyze part of speech, analyze affixes and roots, check for L1 cognate, analyze any available pictures or gestures, guess from textual context, bilingual dictionary, monolingual dictionary, word lists, and flash cards.
Social strategies, including: ask teacher for an L1 translation, ask teacher for a paraphrase or synonym of new word, ask teacher for a sentence including the new word, ask classmates for meaning, and discover new meaning through group work activity.
Social strategies, including: study and practice meaning in a group, teacher checks students’ flash cards or word lists for accuracy, and interact with native speakers
Memory strategies, including: study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning, image word’s meaning, connect word to a personal experience, associate word with its coordinates, connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms, use semantic maps, use ‘scales’ for gradable adjectives, Peg Method, Loci Method, group words together to study them, group words together spatially on a page, use new word in sentences, group words together within a storyline, study the spelling of a word, study the sound of a word, say new word aloud when studying, image word form, underline initial letter of the word, configuration, use Keyword Method, affixes and roots (remembering), part of speech (remembering), paraphrase the word’s meaning, use cognates in study, learn the words of an idiom together, use physical action when learning a word, and use semantic feature grids.
Cognitive strategies, including: verbal repetition, written repetition, word lists, flash cards, take notes in class, use the vocabulary section in your textbook, listen to tape of word lists, put English labels on physical objects, and keep vocabulary notebook.
Metacognitive strategies, including: use English language media (songs, movies, newscasts, etc), testing oneself with word tests, use spaced word practice, skip or pass new word, and continue to study word over time.
There are several factors which influence vocabulary learning strategies use. These factors play important role as they are related with the use of strategies. The factors are including:
Based on the research above, it can be indicated that proficiency level highly influences the use of strategies in vocabulary learning. To sum up, Nyikos and Fan believed that proficient students have required knowledge to use more varied strategies effectively than less proficient students. It is obvious that the required knowledge helps proficient learners to achieve better than less proficient learners, for example, in line with the strategies listed above, proficient learners can save more time and energy in using dictionaries than less proficient learners.
Gender is believed to have important part in learning language including vocabulary learning strategies. Who can use the strategies better: men or women? Catalan provided an interesting result which showed that “.. female participants exhibited a greater range of vocabulary learning strategies use, including formal rule-related strategies, input elicitation (social elicitation strategies), planning and rehearsal strategies, and consolidation strategies than males.Even among good language learners, they do not have the same style in choosing the strategies. Gu believed that good learners are flexible and aware metacognitively to keep evaluating their strategies.Not all good learners apply the same strategies because they autonomously characterize their personal styles in learning.
Nyikos and Fan believed that good language learners decide to choose more appropriate and task-compatible strategies as they reach higher level of proficiency. Since good language learners are metacognitively aware, they develop their previous strategies and look for better ones. I think that this situation rarely happens in bad language learners who do not improve or develop their strategies even though they are posed with different tasks.⁸
Students who learn in EFL classroom tend to be less exposed with the need in practicing new words and applying strategies rather than ESL students. Thus, Nyikos and Fan (2007) highlighted learning environment, classroom-restricted FL versus socially-embedded ESL, as one factor which is affecting the use of vocabulary learning strategies.
I believe that length of time spent in learning language will be positively related with the knowledge of strategies and how to use them. On the opposite, in the study conducted by Rahimi, Riazi, and Saif Iranian EFL learning context showed no relationship between years of language study and the use of learning strategies.
Oxford and Nyikos argued that motivation is the most important factor that are affecting language learning use.Learners who are more motivated use strategies more frequently than the less motivated learners.
Given the strategies that are applied by good language learners and factors which affect the use of vocabulary learning strategies, teachers can consider to examine the factors and select other useful strategies that can be taught to the students. They both are the most valuable data in designing a way to make students aware of strategies. The only way of doing this is by introducing them to the strategy instruction. Learning strategy instruction seems to be the final solution of how teachers can make bad language learners apply the strategies just like the good ones.
Chamot pointed out several significant issues in learning strategy instructions that are still not solved yet. Two of them seems to be highlighted in the area of research on strategy instruction. First, there has been different strong arguments on what language should be used in strategy instruction. Marco is in line with using L1 because it is impossible to use other languages during strategy instruction for beginner to low intermediate level students. Instructions and explanations are better to be delivered in L1. Second, experts have different ideas on whether strategy instruction should be embedded with the learning or be taught explicitly. Even though putting strategy instruction along with the learning process seems to be enjoyable for the students, I do not agree with this since they may forget strategies they have learned before and keep using the same one. It is much favorable to hold a session of strategy instruction where students are introduced with the strategies and how to use them.
This research will be conducted by using case study as the method. First, using Range software, three mostly used textbook material for high school students will be analyzed based on GSL/AWL list and BNC list as well. The most frequent words in baseword 2 and 3 will be used as tool to observe the use of strategies in learning these vocabularies. Second, as many as 150 students from 5 high schools in Jakarta will be requested to study a list of words. Third, students will be asked to answer a series of questions to find out the strategies that they have been using and haven’t. Besides using survey as an instrument, the researcher will also interview the students with the same purpose as the previous one. In the fourth step, the researcher will compare the students’ performance and strategies they are using. What are the strategies that the good language learners (students with good performance) using? What are the bad language learners preferring? After that, the fifth step is to observe and ask questions to the students to find out which factors that affect their choice of strategies. Finally, the results of the students’ strategies in learning vocabulary their performance in doing vocabulary task will be linked to the factors behind which affect their strategies’ choice.
The overal discussion in this research proposal showed the elements that are affecting the use of vocabulary learning strategies and a need of designing vocabulary learning strategy instruction. Different EFL context may give different result, thus, it is important in examining the strategies that applied by good language learners in your area and evaluating the influencing factors. However, it is not yet known of how vocabulary learning strategy instruction can be conducted by evaluating the elements which influence in the use of the strategies. Therefore, further research is highly needed to figure out how really helpful the factors are.
4. Key Strategies in Teaching Vocabulary
The teacher should try to get the meaning to the class without using translation. This is not preferable on the ground that translation may or may not provide the meaning of the word accurately and precisely. It is advocated as it enables the class to go without grasping the meaning of a word that they have learned to pronounce rather than to depend upon the translation.
Below there are recommendations on teaching the meaning of the word:
Perform an action either with your hands and/or a facial gesture if you can.
Draw or present a picture or representation of the word.
Write it on the board and spell it out loud pointing to each letter as you go.
Use props if you can.
Define the meaning of the word and use it in a few very simple sentences.
Use a similar word (synonym) to give your students something they can identify and compare it to and put into context.
Use an opposite word (antonym) so that you are driving a point home by showing a direct contrast to the word.
Get the pupils to try and put the new word in a few sentences.
Discuss the word and create a mind map with the students linking several words related to the new word i. e.: dog - barking - fluffy - playful - short-haired etc.
Teaching vocabulary requires use of all senses to get the best results and best memory retention possible.
Some of the key strategies to unfold the information and meaning of a new word to a class are as follows:
1. Definitions
Definitions in the target language may be very handy if they are expressed in terms that are better known or more easily guessed than the word that is defined. In this direction teachers and students can refer to authentic and reliable dictionaries.
2. Self-defining Context
The context makes the situation clear, and this in turn illuminates the meaning of the new word. This practice saves time and develops an intensive reading habit and better understanding.
3. Antonyms
When one member of a pair of opposites is understood, the meaning of the other can be easily comprehended. This helps the student to understand the different shades of meanings of a word.
4. Synonyms
A synonym may be used to help the student to understand the different shades of meaning if the synonym is better known than the word being taught. Synonyms help to enrich a student's vocabulary bank and provide alternative words instantly.
5. Dramatization
This method can be practiced at ease. It can win the favour of the students as learners like dramatizations and can easily learn through them. Many situations can be dramatized or demonstrated.
6. Realia
Real objects or models of real objects are very effective and meaningful in showing meanings but in handling of real objects, a teacher must be practical and should not be superfluous.
7. Series, Scales, Systems
The meaning of words such as the months of the year, the days of the week, the parts of the day, seasons of the year, ordinal numbers, cardinal numbers, etc. that form part of well-known series can be made clear by placing them in their natural order in the series.
8. Parts of Words
The parts of complex and compound words may be more common than the words themselves. Separating such words into their component parts generally elaborates the meaning.
9. Illustrative Sentences
Most words have a variety of restrictions on their use. Systematic descriptions of these restrictions and idiomatic uses would be laborious and not very effective in teaching.⁹ It is better to give appropriate examples that elucidate the range and variation of usage.
10. Practice from Meaning to Expression
This is controlled practice in which the class does not create new uses or new contexts but simply recalls the ones presented. There are many types of practices for this purpose. Pictures, realia, context, and dramatization can be used. Series and systems can also be used.
11. Reading the Word
Reading words aloud is also very beneficial. It makes a learner familiar with the word and also improves pronunciations of the learners.
12. Writing the Word
It will enable the class to write the new word while the auditory memory is fresh, even if the objective is only to read. Writing or copying the word from the blackboard will give the student a chance to understand the grammatical aspect of the word such as noun, verb, adverb, adjective etc.
13. Shift of Attention
Under this practice, the teacher provides a context by description or through reading which elicits the use of the word. The learners should be asked to pay attention to and develop an attitude or a point of view which he defends or attacks.
14. Strategy for Special Types of Words
Specific techniques or special combinations of the above techniques may be applicable for particular groups of words.
15. Words That Are Easy to Learn
It has been seen that the words that are similar in form and meaning to the first language are easy to understand and comprehend. They should be taught for listening and reading rather than for speaking and writing.
16. Words of Normal Difficulty
Words of normal difficulty are best taught in contextual realms, such as food, clothing, sports, work, and so on. There are advantages to using a connected context illustrating the words that are to be taught. Additional words can be taught as alternatives to those chosen in the connected context. Practice can be controlled in varying situations by changing a key word or phrase.
17. Difficult Words
Some words and sets of words are especially difficult to understand. They have to be taught as special problems with the strategy determined by the particular problem in each case.
Teachers can also use the following strategies, suggested by Alise Robston to help students learn vocabulary from active speaking and active listening engagements:
Reading passages - in order to train students to actively listen for vocabulary words, teachers can use a selection of reading passages that range from simple to complex to strengthen vocabulary skills.
Student selection of reading material - allowing students to select their own reading material with an assignment that requires them to list at least 10 vocabulary words with definitions will help them construct a vocabulary portfolio.
Using assistive technology/references/resources - with any vocabulary experience, students should have designated assistive technology or software or reference materials to look up words and define them.
Teaching word parts - an active listening tip would be to teach students how words are constructed into meaning by breaking them down into word parts (i. e. reconstruction vs. deconstruction are great examples).
Robert Marzano is pretty amazing, having spent countless hours observing students and teachers. An education researcher and teacher, he stresses that in all content areas, direct vocabulary instruction is essential and suggests six steps:
Step one: The teacher explains a new word, going beyond reciting its definition (tap into prior knowledge of students, use imagery).
Step two: Students restate or explain the new word in their own words (verbally and/or in writing).
Step three: Ask students to create a non-linguistic representation of the word (a picture, or symbolic representation).
Step four: Students engage in activities to deepen their knowledge of the new word (compare words, classify terms, write their own analogies and metaphors).
Step five: Students discuss the new word (pair-share, elbow partners).
Step six: Students periodically play games to review new vocabulary (Pyramid, Jeopardy, Telephone).
Marzano's six steps do something revolutionary to vocabulary learning: They make it fun. Students think about, talk about, apply, and play with new words [25, p.59].
The following recommendations to a teacher can be very helpful and useful in the teaching vocabulary process:
Create theme based visual projects with pictures on a poster board and label each object. Use subjects you like e. g.: fashion, animals, sports etc¹⁰.
Seek out word games, activities and vocabulary exercises online and at the library.
Buy crossword puzzle, quizzes and word finder books.
Keep a notebook and write down words that interest them or that they don't understand.
Create flashcards of single words or phrases. This can be a fun project as they can create the cards in themes.
Post the alphabet, numbers, main colours and shapes in a location where they can see them on a daily basis.
Familiarize themselves with all the words they use on a daily basis at work, school and home.
Ask people to write down or spell out a word they don't recognize.
Buy a grammar book and reference it often.
Use audio and/or video lessons for speech and visual recognition of objects and words.
Teaching vocabulary requires from a pedagogue as a teacher to keep learning, looking and researching.
English lessons on video are highly recommended when teaching vocabulary as the connection between hearing the spoken word, seeing the visual object and written word is highly valuable. The learner's vocabulary can only expand if you keep exposing them to new words and practical situations. The lessons cover basic greetings and helpful common phrases. Areas of grammar, tenses and vocabulary builders like the alphabet, vowels, colours, numbers and shapes are also valuable teachings.
Theme based lessons are a must as they highlight a good, solid variety of everyday objects and situations. Their focal point is to familiarize the learner with all the daily visual articles in the world around us. Video lessons are presented with a huge array of bright, bold pictures and accompanying words. The tutor is pleasant in manner and has an expressive voice with an English accent.
When teaching vocabulary, you should inspire creativity as much as possible to keep the level of interest and excitement high. Get students to create colourful, bold street signs, posters, bill boards, magazine covers, flashcards, calendars, weather forecasts, newspaper headlines and news presentations using colours, numbers, shapes and letters. A written, creative project can then be given as an oral presentation and a class discussion can follow.