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at Fairness,
166–167, 168–177, 186; see also Holland and Eisenhart,
Educated in Romance
;
Hall and Sandler,
The Classroom Climate.
47. Fleming,
Blacks in College
, 138–149; Fox, “Women and Higher Education,” 241,
244, 249. But note that here, as we observed earlier with regard to some girls of color, there
are also indications that some black women receive strong support from their families in
their college ambitions. Carnegie Commission on Higher Education,
Opportunities for
Women in Higher Education
, 41.
48. Krupnick, “Women and Men in the Classroom,” 18. In recent years, the gender
gap among undergraduates has narrowed; it will be interesting to examine what, if any,
effect this has had on classroom dynamics.
49. Id., 19. Interestingly, our findings lend only partial support to a similar picture
in our law schools, for although the two classes in which women had positive participa-
tion rates were taught by women, one of the most gender-imbalanced classes of the study
was also taught by a woman. This was a class with a more informal, voluntary participa-
tion structure, fitting with other findings of the Krupnick study.
50. Id., 19–24.
51. See Brooks, “Sex Difference in Student Dominance Behavior”; Karp and Yoels,
“The College Classroom”; Sternglaz and Lyberger-Ficek, “Sex Differences in Student-
Teacher Interactions in the College Classroom”; see also Constantinople et al., “The Chilly
Climate”; Cornelius et al., “Student-Faculty Interaction in the College Classroom.” But
see Heller et al., “Assessment of the Chilly College Climate for Women.” As we suggest
regarding studies of law students’ experiences, it seems valuable in this area for research-
ers to take context into account to a greater degree; as things stand, we cannot tell whether
differences among schools might explain some variations in the findings of these studies.
52. Crawford and MacLeod, “Gender in the College Classroom”; O’Keefe and Faupel,
“The Other Face of the Classroom”; Wingate, “Sexism in the Classroom,” 105.
53. Fassinger, “Understanding Classroom Interaction,” 94. Interestingly, a study of
undergraduates found that men’s self-esteem was less linked to their relational surround
than was women’s: women’s self-esteem was more linked to processes of attachment to
others, whereas men’s was more connected with “an individuation process in which [their]
personal distinguishing achievements [were] emphasized.” Josephs et al., “Gender and Self-
Esteem,” 399–400.
54. They have, however, looked at effects of disciplines or divisions within schools.
55. Feldman,
Escape from the Doll’s House
, 15–16, 71; see also Carnegie Commission
on Higher Education,
Opportunities for Women in Higher Education
, 53.
56. Of the women students who were under thirty years old, 26.5 to 27.7% reported
weekly participation; 44.6% of the women over thirty reported participating on a weekly
basis. Banks, “Gender Bias,” 141 n. 19. Similarly, younger women were far more likely to
report infrequently or never participating. Id.
57. Banks, “Gender Bias (2),” 530–535.
58. Taber et al., “Gender, Legal Education, and the Legal Profession,” 1239. Note that
one study that compared students’ self-reports with their actual scores and grades found
a high correlation between self-reports and the actual data, although of course this doesn’t
262
Notes to Pages 185–187
erase the need for caution in this regard. Tucker et al., “Whatever Happened to the Class
of 1983?,” 156.
59. Homer and Schwartz, “Admitted but Not Accepted,” 50. Of the white men, only
36% said that they never asked questions in class, whereas more than half of all other groups
responded that they never asked questions (52% men of color, 53% white women, 61%
women of color). Id. There were similar results when students were asked whether they
volunteered answers in class, but the picture reverses for frequent participation (with higher
percentages of white males reporting that they volunteered answers in class and lower
percentages of the other students). White males also had a distinctly more positive response
to Socratic teaching as well as to law school generally and had overall higher self-esteem;
they were the least likely to report that racial or gender diversity in the faculty mattered.
See Mertz et al., “What Difference Does Difference Make?” for an in-depth discussion of
the Homer and Schwartz results, as well as of other studies summarized in this chapter.
60. Guinier et al.,
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