Bucyrus Erie Company (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1955); and J. L. Allhands, Tools
of the Earthmover (Huntsville, TX: Sam Houston College Press, 1951).
3.
Interestingly, the high success rate was only amongst the industry’s twenty-five largest firms. Only
one of the seven smallest steam shovel manufacturers survived this sustaining technology change to
internal gasoline combustion. Almost no information is available about these companies other than
what is provided by their product brochures. I suspect, however, that the fact that the large and mid-
sized firms cruised through this transition while the small ones were killed indicates that resources
played a part in the story, a conclusion that complements the theoretical perspectives summarized in
chapter 2 above. Some sustaining technologies clearly are so expensive to develop and implement or so
dependent on proprietary or scarce expertise that some companies simply cannot successfully manage
the transition. I am indebted to Professor Richard Rosenbloom for sharing his perspective on this issue.
4.
An example of this is the development of the first dragline, by Page, a Chicago area contractor. Page
dug Chicago’s system of canals, and invented the dragline in 1903 to do that job more effectively. Page
draglines were later used extensively in digging the Panama Canal, alongside steam shovels made by
Bucyrus Erie and Marion. This finding that customers were significant sources of sustaining
innovations is consistent with Professor Eric von Hippel’s findings; see The Sources of Innovation
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
5.
The companies that survived the invasion of hydraulics in this way found safe haven in a particular
high-end market. Bucyrus Erie and Marion, for example, became the dominant makers of the huge
stripping shovels used in strip mines. Marion’s model 6360 stripping shovel was the largest frontward-
scooping shovel ever built, able to heft 180 cubic yards in its bucket. (An advertisement showing Paul
Bunyan standing aside the 6360 is one of the most stunning pieces of advertising art I have seen.)
Harnischfeger is the world’s largest maker of electric mining shovels, while Unit found a niche making
the huge pedestal cranes used on offshore oil rigs. For a time, Northwest survived by making draglines
for dredging ocean shipping lanes. P & H and Lorain made huge cranes and draglines (all cable-
actuated).
6.
As the hydraulic excavator has matured, these companies have met with varying degrees of
subsequent success. In 1996, the world’s highest-volume excavator companies, Demag and O & K,
were based in Germany.
7.
Technically, excavators that scoop their buckets forward are power shovels. This was the dominant
design from 1837 through the early 1900s, and persisted as a major market segment through much of
this century. Excavators that pull earth backward toward the cab are backhoes. As the hydraulic
excavator became the dominant design during the 1970s, both types came to be called excavators. Until
hydraulic actuation required the booms to be permanently attached to the unit, contractors could attach
different booms or arms to their basic power units so that the same unit could work as a shovel,
backhoe, or crane. Similarly, different buckets, sometimes called dippers, could be attached to move
different types of material.
8.
The true measure of performance in excavation was the number of cubic yards of earth that could be
moved per minute. This measure was so dependent upon operator skill and upon the type of earth being
dug, however, that contractors adopted bucket size as the more robust, verifiable metric.
9.
These
British and American pioneers were followed by several European manufacturers, each of which was
also an entrant to the excavator industry, including France’s Poclain and Italy’s Bruneri Brothers.
10.
The ability to push the shovel into the earth was a major advantage to the hydraulics approach. The
cable-actuated excavators that pulled earth toward the operator all had to rely on gravity to drive the
teeth of the heavy shovel into the earth.
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11.
Makers of early hybrid ocean transports, which were steam-powered but still outfitted with sails,
used the same rationale for their design as did the Bucyrus Erie engineers: Steam power still was not
reliable enough for the transoceanic market, so steam power plants had to be backed up by
conventional technology. The advent of steam-powered ships and their substitution for wind-powered
ships in the transoceanic business is itself a classic study of disruptive technology. When Robert Fulton
sailed the first steamship up the Hudson River in 1819, it underperformed transoceanic sailing ships on
nearly every dimension of performance: It cost more per mile to operate; it was slower; and it was
prone to frequent breakdowns. Hence, it could not be used in the transoceanic value network and could
only be applied in a different value network, inland waterways, in which product performance was
measured very differently. In rivers and lakes, the ability to move against the wind or in the absence of
a wind was the attribute most highly valued by ship captains, and along that dimension, steam
outperformed sail. Some scholars (see, for example, Richard Foster, in Innovation: The Attacker’s
Advantage [New York: Summit Books, 1986]) have marveled at how myopic were the makers of
sailing ships, who stayed with their aging technology until the bitter end, in the early 1900s, completely
ignoring steam power. Indeed, not a single maker of sailing ships survived the industry’s transition to
steam power. The value network framework offers a perspective on this problem that these scholars
seem to have ignored, however. It was not a problem of knowing about steam power or of having
access to technology. The problem was that the customers of the sailing ship manufacturers, who were
transoceanic shippers, could not use steam-powered ships until the turn of the century. To cultivate a
position in steamship building, the makers of sailing ships would have had to engineer a major strategic
reorientation into the inland waterway market, because that was the only value network where steam-
powered vessels were valued throughout most of the 1800s. Hence, it was these firms’ reluctance or
inability to change strategy, rather than their inability to change technology, that lay at the root of their
failure in the face of steam-powered vessels.
12.
An exception to this is an unusual product introduced by Koehring in 1957: the Skooper combined
cables and hydraulics to dig earth away from a facing wall; it did not dig down into the earth.
13.
Bucyrus Erie does not fit easily into either of these groups. It introduced a large hydraulic excavator
in the 1950s, but subsequently withdrew it from the market. In the late 1960s, it acquired the
“Dynahoe” line of hydraulic loader-backhoes from Hy-Dynamic Corporation and sold them as utility
machines to its general excavation customers, but, again, dropped this product line as well.
14.
Caterpillar was a very late (but successful) entrant into the hydraulic excavation equipment
industry, introducing its first model in 1972. Excavators were an extension of its line of dozers,
scrapers, and graders. Caterpillar never participated in the excavation machine market when cable
actuation was the dominant design.
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CHAPTER FOUR
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