|
particular problem. If the legitimacy of the Umayyads was
questioned too sharply, ammunition might be provided for the
Shi‘ites, most of whom came to see ‘Ali as having been cheated not
only by Mu‘awiya but also by the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and
‘Umar, who are of central importance for the Sunni concept of the
transmission of the Prophet’s Sunna to the later community.
Furthermore, Mu‘awiya himself was a companion of Muhammad,
his secretary according to tradition, and one of the characteristics of
Sunni Islam is its championing of the companions as sources of
authoritative teaching, as against the Shi‘ites who viewed them in
general with suspicion and as enemies of ‘Ali and the imams.
Muslim tradition is virtually our only detailed source for the
history of the Umayyad state. It should be obvious, therefore, that
the nature of the tradition has to be borne in mind constantly when
attempting to discuss the history of the period.
For modern treatment of the Umayyads, see Appendix 2.
Notes
1. C.H.Becker was one of the first to insist on the distinction between
islamisation and arabisation, and he stressed too the crucial importance for
the development of Islam as we know it of the interaction between Arabs
and conquered peoples outside Arabia in the period after the Arab
conquests. See his
Islamstudien,
i, 66–145, and in English his ‘The
expansion of the Saracens’ in the
Cambridge Mediaeval History,
1st
edition 1911–36, ii, chapters 11 and 12.
2. This understanding of the emergence of the schools of religious
scholars and their elaboration of the notion of
Sunna
depends on the
results of J.Schacht’s persuasive, but still controversial, studies of early
Muslim jurisprudence. See his
Introduction to Islamic law,
especially
chapters 5 and 6, and the article ‘Fikh’ in EI2; for a more conservative
analysis of the concept of
Sunna,
taking issue with Schacht, M.M.
Bravmann,
The spiritual background,
179 ff.; R.B.Serjeant in
Arabic
literature to
the end of the Umayyad period, ed. A.F.L.Beeston
et al.,
Cambridge 1983, 142–7.
3. J.Wellhausen,
The religio-political factions in early Islam;
M.Hodgson, ‘How did the early Shi‘a become sectarian?’,
JAOS,
75
(1955); S.Moscati, ‘Per una storia dell’ antica Ši‘a’
, RSO
, 30 (1955);
W.M.Watt, ‘Shi‘ism under the Umayyads’, JRAS, (1960); W.F.Tucker,
‘Bayan b. Sam‘an and the Bayaniyya: Shi‘ite extremists of Umayyad Iraq’,
MW,
65 (1975);
idem,
‘Rebels and gnostics: al-Mugira ibn Sa‘id and the
Mugiriyya’,
Arabica,
22 (1975);
idem,
‘Abu Mansur al-‘Ijli and the
Mansuriyya: a study in medieval terrorism’,
Isl.,
54 (1977);
idem,
“Abd
Introduction
19
Allah b. Mu‘awiya and the Janahiyya: rebels and ideologues of the late
Umayyad period’,
SI,
51 (1980); S.M. Jafri,
The origins and early
development of Shi‘a Islam
.
4. J.Wellhausen,
Factions;
W.Thomson, ‘Kharijitism and the Kharijites’,
in
The MacDonald presentation volume,
Princeton and London 1933;
W.M.Watt, ‘Kharijite thought in the Umayyad period’,
Isl.,
36 (1961);
articles ‘Azarika’, ‘Ibadiyya’ and ‘Kharijites’ in
EI2
.
5. I.Goldziher,
Muslim Studies,
i, 101 ff.; P.Crone,
Slaves on horses,
49–
57.
6. See pp. 70–1, 76–81, 85–6, 105–7.
7. See p. 70.
8. I Goldziher,
Muslim Studies,
ii, 49 ff.; H.Lammens,
Mo‘awia 1er,
202
ff.; on the development of the
khutba
and associated features, article
‘Khutba’ in
EI2
.
9. Cf. I.Goldziher,
Muslim Studies,
ii, 48 ff. and S.D.Goitein, ‘The
sanctity of Jerusalem and Palestine’ in his
Studies in Islamic history and
institutions
.
10. P.Crone and M.A.Cook,
Hagarism,
8, 19–20.
11. C.H.Becker, ‘The expansion of the saracens’; H.A.R.Gibb,
The Arab
conquests in central Asia;
F.McGraw Donner,
The early Islamic conquests
.
12. D.C.Dennett,
Conversion and the poll-tax in early Islam;
M.Lapidus, ‘The conversion of Egypt to Islam’,
IOS,
(1972); M.Brett, ‘The
islamisation of North Africa’,
Islam and modernisation in North Africa,
ed.
M.Brett; N.Levtzion (ed.),
Conversion to Islam;
R.Bulliet,
Conversion to
Islam in the medieval period
.
13. A Poliak. ‘L’arabisation de l’orient semitique’.
REI,
12 (1938); M.
Sprengling, ‘Persian into Arabic’,
AJSL
(1939, 1940); J.Blau,
The
emergence and linguistic background of Judaeo-Arabic;
article “Arabiyya’
in EI2; G.Lazard, ‘The rise of the New Persian language’, in R.N.Frye (ed.),
The Cambridge History of Iran,
iv, London 1975.
14. For Shi‘ite views of the Umayyads, E.Kohlberg, ‘Some Imami Shi‘i
interpretations of Umayyad history’, in G.H.A.Juynboll (ed.),
Studies on the
first century of Islamic society,
145ff.
15. Jahiz,
Risala fi Bani Umayya (=Risala fi’l-nabita),
French trans. Ch.
Pellat,
AIEOr
.
Alger
(1952); Maqrizi,
Al-Niza‘ wa’l-takhasum fima bayna
Bani Umayya wa-Bani Hashim,
English trans. C.E.Bosworth,
Al-Maqrizi’s
‘Book of contention and strife’
.
16. Article ‘Khalifa’ in
EI2;
for discussion of one of the most important
statements of the qualifications, powers and duties of the caliph, see
H.A.R.Gibb, ‘Al-Mawardi’s theory of the
khilafa
’ in his
Studies on the
civilization of Islam
.
17. I.Goldziher,
Muslim Studies,
ii, 38 ff.; G.E.von Grunebaum,
Medieval Islam,
156 ff.; A.Abel, ‘Le Khalife, presence sacrée’, SI, 7 (1957);
O.Grabar, ‘Notes sur les ceremonies umayyades’, in
Studies in memory of
Gaston Wiet,
ed. Myriam Rosen-Ayalon, Jerusalem 1977.
18. Cf. I.Goldziher, ‘Du sens propre des expressions Ombre de Dieu,
etc.’
RHR,
35 (1897); W.M.Watt, ‘God’s caliph. Quranic interpretations and
Umayyad claims’ in
Iran and Islam,
ed. C.E.Bosworth, Edinburgh 1971.
20
Introduction
19. Note that it is Mu‘awiya rather than Yazid who bears the brunt of the
charge of corrupting the
khalifa
to
mulk
.
20. G.R.Hawting, ‘The Umayyads and the Hijaz’,
Proceedings of the
fifth seminar for Arabian Studies,
London 1972.
21. C.H.Becker, ‘Studien zur Omajjadengeschichte. a) ‘Omar II’,
ZA,
15
(1900).
22. Article ‘Ta’rikh’ in
EI1 Supplement;
P.Crone,
Slaves on horses,
‘Historiographical introduction’; A.A.Duri,
The rise of historical writing
among the Arabs
.
23. A Noth,
Quellenkritische Studien zu Themen, Formen, und
Tendenzen frühislamischen Geschichtsüberlieferung
.
21
Chapter 2
The Umayyad Family and its Rise to the
Caliphate
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
