The content of the presentation are as follows. Defining the state and its relationship to education

^{The content of the presentation are as follows.}

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  ^{DEFINING THE STATE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO EDUCATION}​
  
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  ^{INCOME INEQUALITY AND EDUCATIONAL EQUITY}​
  
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  ^{COUNTER-HEGEMONIC MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES}​
  
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  ^{EDUCATION AND ENROLLMENT PATTERN}​
  

^{I would like to start from
DEFINING THE STATE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO EDUCATION​}

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  ^{State in a capitalist society.}​
  

As authors described here in the article the state in a capitalist society, support the policies that are directed toward the constitution and reproduction of the capitalist system,2 it also is the representative of the nation as a whole,
^{State in liberal democratic societies.}​ in liberal democratic societies, the state is a proponent of the extension of personal rights and greater mass participation in the determination of public policy. It is said that the state has a dual character: it is both a pact of domination and a contested terrain. Various groups intervene to shape public policy to serve their interests.

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  ^{The use of education system in state.}​
  

And education can be used to legitimate a political system, it also can serve to interrogate it; although an education system may function to perpetuate the social division of labor, it also
can equip individuals with the skills and knowledge to humanize the workplace and change the class structure of a society.
^{Economic systems of Latin America}
As auther noted the “associate-dependent development” has characterized Latin America.5 threfore, the economic systems of Latin America were built upon an alliance among the state bureaucracy and state managers, the multinational corporations, and the highest strata of the national bourgeoisie. Not only
multinational corporations but also U.S. hegemony exercised in the region for the past one hundred and more years—a hegemony that has involved frequent military interventions, particularly in the Caribbean region and Central America—have thwarted alternative and more independent models of economic development. The typical political economy of Latin America strengthened a more concentrated economic system that was inherently less redistributive and excluded the subordinate classes.
^{INCOME INEQUALITY AND EDUCATIONAL EQUITY}
As in is mentioned in the article that the root cause for Latin America’s income inequality is educational system. This was reflected in the report, published on April 1998
Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile found that the region’s public schools were mired in crisis. Rather than contributing to progress, the report stated, schooling was
“reinforcing poverty, perpetuating inequality and holding back economic growth.”
The report continues:
On the one hand, poverty no longer stems from an economic scenario of crisis and inflation, but is the result of new growth strategies adopted by most countries in the region. . . . The divide between rich and poor in the region has considerably
widened and wealth distribution has become central to an analysis of the social situation.12
The report describes “wealth distribution patterns which benefit the better off, allowing some to enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the world. The populations in Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and Guatemala, and African Americans in the northeast region of Brazil Nicaragua, El Salvador, Honduras, and Haiti (all of which have suffered civil war and natural disasters as well as a history of foreign interventions and neocolonialism) live in poverty and, according to the Economic Commission for Latin America, the average poverty rate throughout the entire region in 2009 was 33.1 percent and with regard to extreme poverty, the average rate was 13.3 percent.

Regarding educational equity, Although Latin America, historically, has had a greater percentage of children and youth

enrolled in schools in other developing areas of the world, As it is mentioned in the article the Large numbers of students from the least privileged sectors of society (ethnic
minorities, rural populations, and women) did not attend or complete primary schooling while a substantial number of students attended universities, often at rates, in the past, exceeding those of European countries. At the same time, Latin American workers had fewer years of schooling than their counterparts in other countries and the average amount of
schooling of the adult population is less than six years.
^{COUNTER-HEGEMONIC MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES stated from emerging} Brazil,
Bolivia, Argentina, Ecuador, Uruguay, Paraguay, El Salvador, and Nicaragua (with the return of the Frente Sandinista to power in 2006), and Chile. It has coincided with a downturn in the global economy and less interest of the United States in Latin America and more in Asia. Brazil has emerged as a major industrial power as well as agricultural exporter of basic commodities. Argentina, following its default on paying international investors in 2001, has experienced rapid economic growth, converting much of its cattle grazing land in its central
plain area (the pampas) to soybean as well A 2011 report by the Council on Hemisphere Affairs (COHA) on “Inequality and Poverty in Latin America: Can the Decline Continue?” highlights substantial economic growth correlated with a marked decline in income inequality and poverty in a number of countries. As the report points out, “although most of the countries in Latin America and the Caribbean still suffer from very high levels of inequality and poverty, the region has made important initial strides in reducing these statistics.” The countries forming
ALBA have taken steps to form alternative financial and technical assistance agencies and mutual security arrangements. Cooperation in education, for example, has involved Cuba sending teachers to Venezuela and Nicaragua to advise on literacy campaigns as well as sending doctors to staff health clinics in poor urban neighborhoods. In turn, Venezuela has provided low cost, subsidized petroleum to Cuba, and substantial financial assistance to countries, such as Argentina, to help it recover from its economic collapse in 2001–2002.
EDUCATION AND ENROLLMENT PATTERN

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  Urban-Rural and Income Level Differences
  

In this part authors describe the problems which dealt with enrollment and its level. The Scholl coverage level in 1990 -2004 was below 90 percent for ages six to eighteen. And the rural attendance rates which are about 20 percent less than urban rates. The problems that faced are the inadequate facilities and the distance of schools from communities, as well as the need for child labor at home or in the field, another variable affecting school completion rates and academic achievement is the quality of teachers

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  Gender
  

In Latin America, despite increasing access to education and the narrowing of the percentage difference in illiteracy by gender, there were still approximately twenty million illiterate women in the region in 2009.27 When the combined effects of social class, region, and gender are taken into account, the highest illiteracy rates are found among poor women living in rural areas.28 Gender differences in literacy attainment become even sharper when ethnicity is taken into account. It is not uncommon to find illiteracy rates greater than two-thirds to three-quarters for indigenous women living in rural areas.
Ethnicity
Indigenous populations or “first peoples” and ethnic minorities (especially Afro-Brazilians) are the most discriminated against populations with regard to access to educational services for two reasons. First, they are commonly located in the most impoverished and underdeveloped regions of their countries and second, the language of instruction, until recent reform initiatives, was invariably Spanish (Portuguese in Brazil). Author states that African-descent populations in
Central America and several South American countries: in Panama, for example, only 12 percent of African-background students complete upper-secondary education compared with 60 percent of non–African-background students

EDUCATION, THE DEBT CRISIS, AND THE NEOLIBERAL AGENDA

^{Author gave an interesting issue in this article concerning privatization and decentralization of education system in Latin America}
privatization policies are at the center of global debates on educational reform processes of an increasing number of countries and regions. This chapter explores variants of educational privatization in the different countries and territories in the Latin American region. The chapter presents an example of privatization through governmental subsidies, notably Chile, which also subsidize private schools and/or provide tax credits to parents who opt out of the public school system. Selective, high-quality private institutions are attractive to middle- and upper-class students because they offer smaller classes, improved facilities, and an overall atmosphere that is more conducive to learning. At the university level, private institutions are seen as less politicized and therefore not prone to student demonstrations that disrupt classes or cancel an academic semester/year.
At the tertiary level of education, public universities in many countries are faced with an expanded demand from the growing number of secondary school graduates and insufficient
state funds. Public universities therefore have resorted to charging tuition and other fees that often are the same as those charged in elite private universities.
The chapter describes the reasons of Chilean protests. It is explained the protests as being the result of "one of world’s lowest levels of public funding for higher education, some of the longest degrees and no comprehensive system of student grants or subsidized loans" and a flat job market as the detonant. It have been attributed "students' anger" to "a perception that Chile's education system is grossly unfair – that it gives rich students access to some of the best schooling in Latin America while dumping poor pupils in shabby, under-funded state schools.


Decentralization.


I found out that the governance of education systems as the institutional arrangements that describe who has authority over the management of public schools. In the Latin America these changes generally meant decentralization—for example, via the devolution of schools to subnational states , the co-management of schools with municipalities and the establishment of schools managed directly by the local community.
Prominent examples of countries that have implemented a national decentralization policy are Colombia (1968 and 1986), Argentina (1976), Mexico (1978), and Chile (1981).
Decentralized systems may be successful in resource rich urban and suburban areas, but
present serious problems for lower-class municipalities and rural areas. These areas do not
have the resources necessary to make up for educational costs not covered by government
^subsidies. And it was found that what Latin American teachers generally prefer is centralized public funding that guarantees an equitable financing of education for all areas of a country with a more decentralized curricular policy in order to reflect local realities.