restitutio est reciproca
) had long been a matter of course in European private
law.
58
Yet this idea was evident only as a principle of contract law.
59
It proved
much more difficult to re-explain it from the modern unjustified enrichment
perspective; and such explanations have rarely been based on plausible doctrinal
argument.
60
What is more, reconnecting mutual
condictiones
under such a
contrat
57
Carbonnier
(fn 24) [107]; cf also
di Majo
1994
Rivista Critica del Diritto Privato 323 ff.
Similarly, German scholars have spoken of a „faktisches Synallagma‟:
HG Leser
, Von der
Saldotheorie zum faktischen Synallagma, Diss Freiburg 1956; see already
Bolze
(1890) 76 AcP 241:
„als gewollt vorauszusetzende Einheitlichkeit des factischen Verhältnisses„;
E von Caemmerer
,
Bereicherung und unerlaubte Handlung, in: Festschrift für Ernst Rabel, vol I (1954) 333–401, 386:
„Rückabwicklung eines faktisch durchgeführten Vertragsverhältnisses‟. Cf also
D König
,
Ungerechtfertigte Bereicherung. Tatbestände und Ordnungsprobleme in rechtsvergleichender Sicht
(1985) 85 ff, comparing French and German law. See also, for Italy, Cass (23 April 1980) (1980)
Repertorio del Foro Italiano 2861, Vendita, 144: „… le reciproche prestazioni delle parti che
conseguono alla risoluzione restano tra loro collegate, per cui l‟una non può essere pretesa se l‟altera
non sia adempiuta‟. In the Spanish
Codigo civil
this is explicitly laid down; see Art 1303: „Declarada
la nulidad de una obligación, los contratantes deben restituirse recíprocamente las cosas que
hubiesen sido materia del contrato, con sus frutos, y el precio con los intereses, salvo lo que se
dispone en los artículos siguientes‟; Art 1308: „Mientras uno de los contratantes no realice la
devolución de aquello a que en virtud de la declaración de nulidad esté obligado, no puede el otro ser
compelido a cumplir por su parte lo que le incumba‟.
58
P Hellwege
, Die Rückabwicklung gegenseitiger Verträge als einheitliches Problem (2004) 394–
451. Hellwege argues convincingly that the idea of restitution being reciprocal was applied not only
within the context of the original
restitutio in integrum
in the technical, narrow sense, but also under
all the many, alternative Roman actions. Even if this is difficult to prove for Roman law, the
evidence for the later
usus modernus
, all over Europe, appears cogent. This idea apparently sank into
oblivion only in the 19th century, when the modern concept of nullity was developed, and when the
Roman
restitutio in integrum
was seen as not fitting in well into the conceptual frame of legal
doctrine and when it was therefore replaced by the
condictiones
; cf
Bolze
(1890) 76 AcP 237 f,
239 ff, 246 ff, with further references;
Hellwege
, supra, 451 ff. See, however, for modern law:
M Planiol/G Ripert
,
Traité pratique de droit civil français, vol VI Obligations (1939) [321], [433];
Lord Goff of Chieveley/G Jones
, The Law of Restitution (7th edn 2007) [1-083] f, [9-023] ff; see
also the Restatement (First) of Restitution (1937) § 65, and
Amber Resources Co
v US
78 Federal
Claims Reporter (Fed Cl) 508, 515.
59
In fact, the
restitutio in integrum
was a general legal consequence of praetorian actions, such as
the action for fraud (
actio de dolo
) or for duress (
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