apply to export cartels, providing a third experiment revealing how
fi
rms behave in
the absence of antitrust constraints. A study of 111 cartel episodes covering 93
industries during the years 1918 to 1965 found many examples of long-lived export
agreements motivated by price-
fi
xing, as well as examples of cartels undermined by
price wars and fringe competition (Dick, 1996). One-quarter of the cartels survived
for at least 15 years. This evidence, too, suggests that absent antitrust enforcement,
many industries would
fi
nd ways of coordinating to the detriment of consumers and
economic welfare.
A fourth experiment with relaxed antitrust enforcement involves a period
during which the antitrust authorities wanted to prevent certain mergers, but the
transactions were nevertheless permitted. This situation occurred during the mid-
1980s, when the Department of Transportation was charged with the review of
airline mergers, and allowed two large acquisitions involving carriers with substan-
tially overlapping route networks (Northwest
’
s acquisition of Republic and TWA
’
s
purchase of Ozark) to proceed over the opposition of the antitrust enforcers in the
Justice Department. The Justice Department
’
s opposition to these transactions is a
particularly strong signal of their competitive problems, because federal antitrust
enforcement was relatively relaxed during the second term of the Reagan admin-
istration (Fox and Pitofsky, 1992; but see Kovacic, 2003, for a different view).
Retrospective studies of these mergers have found higher fares in some markets,
with estimated average price increases generally at least 5
–
10 percent in city pairs
where the two carriers had previously competed (Peters, 2003, and the references
cited there). There is also evidence of a reduction in
fl
ight frequencies, which can
be considered a reduced quality of service, between the same pairs of cities. Some
of these studies suggest that fares fell in city pairs where the merging
fi
rms had not
previously competed, but these are markets where antitrust enforcers would likely
not have identi
fi
ed competitive problems. (To address such situations, the Justice
Department has recently allowed some competing airlines to form code-sharing
alliances that effectively permit them to combine route networks where they do not
compete while prohibiting code sharing on city pairs where they are head-to-head
rivals.)
In sum, studies of
fi
rm behavior during these four periods demonstrate that
without antitrust,
fi
rms can and do exercise market power, to the detriment of
consumers and other buyers. Not every
fi
rm or industry performs anticompetitively
absent antitrust enforcement
—
competition is often a dominant strategy for sellers
independent of legal mandates (Stigler, 1964)
—
but many do, and when this
market failure occurs, the harm to competition can be substantial and long lasting.
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