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2020
Technology based grammar instruction
Technology based grammar instruction
Erin Mary Summerhays
University of Northern Iowa
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ERIN SUMMERHAYS
2020
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TECHNOLOGY BASED GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION
An Abstract of a Thesis
Submitted
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts Education
Erin Mary Summerhays
University of Northern Iowa
July 2020
ABSTRACT
There are a wide variety of technology-based grammar instruction
resources available for educators, and it is important for them to select the best
tool for their school district’s and individual students’ needs. It is also important
for educators to know whether the technology they have chosen is better than
the traditional way of grammar instruction using paper and pencil. This paper
studied the free grammar tool Noredink and looked specifically at the concept of
active and passive voice. 22 10
th
-grade students were participants, with 11
receiving grammar instruction using traditional methods, and the other 11
receiving grammar instruction using Noredink. The study analyzed both
quantitative data using a pre-test, post-test, and Likert scale survey as well as
qualitative data using thematic analysis. The findings of the study showed that
the students who learned using Noredink performed much better on the post-test
and also had more positive feelings about experiencing the instruction through
technology. The control group performed much lower on the post-test and
experienced many negative feelings about receiving instruction using traditional
methods.
TECHNOLOGY BASED GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION
A Thesis
Submitted
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master Arts Education
Erin Mary Summerhays
University of Northern Iowa
July 2020
ii
This Study by: Erin Summerhays
Entitled: Technology Based Grammar Instruction
has been approved as meeting the thesis requirement for the
Degree of Master of Arts Education
Date
Dr. Deborah Tidwell, Chair, Thesis Committee
Date
Dr. Robert Boody, Thesis Committee Member
Date
Dr. Sarah Vander Zanden, Thesis Committee Member
Date
Dr. Jennifer Waldron, Dean, Graduate College
iii
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to all of my students. They bring so much joy and
learning to my life!
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the chair of my thesis committee, Dr. Deb
Tidwell for all of her extensive work with me to complete this thesis. I would also
like to acknowledge Dr. Sarah Vander Zanden and Dr. Robert Boody for their
help and insightful comments along the way. Finally, I would like to acknowledge
Dr. Soh Meacham, who helped me get this thesis off the ground and worked with
me on the first three chapters.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1
Grammatical Knowledge ................................................................................. 1
Access to and Preference for Technology ...................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................. 6
Grammatical Knowledge ................................................................................. 6
Program Design .............................................................................................. 7
Instructional Design Utilizing Technology ........................................................ 8
Student Choice and Motivation ..................................................................... 10
Learner-Centered .......................................................................................... 12
Feedback ...................................................................................................... 13
Teacher-Directed Instruction ......................................................................... 15
Technology-Based Grammar Instruction in Action ........................................ 16
Perceptions of Online Programs ................................................................... 18
Grammar and Technology ............................................................................. 18
Summary ....................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 3: METHODS ................................................................................... 21
Research Question ....................................................................................... 21
Participants ................................................................................................... 21
Apparatus and Materials ............................................................................... 22
vi
Procedure ...................................................................................................... 24
Control Group .......................................................................................... 25
Experimental Group ................................................................................. 25
Analysis ......................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ..................................................................................... 28
Control Group ................................................................................................ 28
Experimental Group ...................................................................................... 37
Comparison Between Groups ....................................................................... 46
Mixed ANOVA Analysis ........................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ............................................................................... 51
REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 54
APPENDIX A: PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST QUESTIONS ............................... 57
APPENDIX B: CONTROL GROUP SURVEY ..................................................... 65
APPENDIX C: EXPERIMENTAL GROUP SURVEY .......................................... 66
APPENDIX D: CONTROL GROUP CODED TEXT ............................................ 67
APPENDIX E: EXPERIMENTAL GROUP CODED TEXT .................................. 69
vii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
PAGE
1 Pre-test Scores ......................................................................................... 29
2 Post-test Scores ........................................................................................ 30
3 Improvement from pre-to post-test ............................................................ 31
4 Paired Samples Statistics .......................................................................... 32
5 Paired Samples Test ................................................................................. 32
6 Code Definitions ........................................................................................ 34
7 Collapsing Initial Codes ............................................................................. 36
8 Pre-test Scores ......................................................................................... 37
9 Post-test Scores ........................................................................................ 38
10 Improvement from pre-to post-test ........................................................... 39
11 Paired Samples Statistics ......................................................................... 40
12 Paired Samples Test ................................................................................ 40
13 Code Definitions ....................................................................................... 43
14 Collapsing Initial Codes ........................................................................... 45
15 Comparison of Codes by Group .............................................................. 47
16 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................... 48
17 Multivariate Tests .................................................................................... 49
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Grammar instruction is an aspect of literacy education that has been
discussed for many years. The big debate over grammar instruction used to be
whether it should be taught explicitly or whether it should be taught implicitly and
in context with the other aspects of a whole language arts program. Many
studies have been completed, and meta-analysis has shown that grammar
instruction is best taught in context (Harrity, 2012). The debate now has moved
to how effective technology-based grammar instruction is when compared to
traditional grammar instruction using pencil and paper. There are a wide variety
of technology-based grammar instruction resources available to educators, some
for free and some at an additional cost, and it is important for educators to know
if these programs help their students to learn and to retain grammar knowledge.
This paper specifically focuses on the research question: Is technology-based
grammar instruction using Noredink more effective than traditional paper and
pencil grammar instruction when high-school age, native English speakers are
learning active and passive voice
Grammatical Knowledge
Hartwell (1985) considers a discussion about grammar by W. Nelson
Francis (1954) and proposes that there are five different meanings of grammar:
Grammar 1
: “‘the set of formal patterns in which the words of a language
are arranged in order to convey l
arger meanings’” (Hartwell, 1985, p.
2
109). Grammar 1 is the rules of writing that are in our heads, but that we
cannot necessarily access or explain.
Grammar 2: the formal grammar rules that are associated with linguistic
science, sometimes called “descriptive grammar” (p. 109).
Grammar 3
: common usage, or “‘linguistic etiquette’” (p. 109). Grammar 3
changes based on the appropriate level of speaking for the situation.
Grammar 4
: school grammar, otherwise known as “prescriptive grammar”
(p. 109). Many times, this grammar is influenced by individual teacher
preferences.
Grammar 5
: “‘stylistic grammar,…grammatical terms used in the interest
of teaching prose style’” (p. 110).
Grammar 1, Grammar 3, and Grammar 5 all seem to have a place in the
classroom. Grammar 1 is impossible to banish from our minds because this is
the grammar that is in our heads, and so influences our writing skills. Students
need to be taught linguistic etiquette (Grammar 3) in order to know how to
effectively communicate in the world. Students also need to learn Grammar 5 in
order to be able to add variety to their writing. Conversely, Hartwell believes that
Grammar 2 and Grammar 4 are of little practical interest in the classroom,
because students do not necessarily need to know all of the concepts involved
with linguistic science, and because Grammar 4 is influenced too much by
individual teacher preferences. The tools available to teachers to use in the
classroom have widened significantly in recent years due to a boom in the
technology field.
Access to and Preference for Technology
Today’s students have grown up with and are surrounded by technology.
It is an everyday part of most of their lives (Lacina, 2005). While teachers and
3
students used to be tied down with PCs in a computer lab, recent computer and
mobile phone development has provided teachers “greater freedom for extending
learning outside of traditional learning environments” (Wang & Smith, 2013, p.
117). Learning styles and how students perceive learning using technology has
changed over time. Students are very open and accepting of using mobile
technology to learn, and many students even prefer receiving learning materials
on a mobile device rather than a computer (Wang & Smith, 2013). Some
opponents may worry about a student’s lack of technology skills impeding on
their learning potential. It is true that students do need a period of adjustment
when it comes to operating the technology-based grammar instruction
(Hegelheimer, 2007; Sagarra & Zapata, 2008). But once students knew how to
use the resource, their previous computer skills did not negatively affect their
scores on performance tests (Koehler et al., 2011).
Not only do students prefer learning with technology, but research has
shown many benefits to students learning through technology. Even back in
1998, Nutta showed that “multimedia instruction reduces learning time by 30%
compared to traditional instruction” (p. 50). Game-based educational activities,
which have been studied frequently, are “recognized as a means to support not
only skill acquisition, but also knowledge acquisition and strategy automaticity”
(Proske et al., 2014, p. 483). Students can practice their grammar skills any time
and any place that they have access to the resource, which can lead to additional
practice outside of the traditional school day or school year. Using technology to
4
help students learn and practice grammatical concepts can help students
improve their skills while leaving more class time available for interactive,
communicative grammar and writing activities (Potter & Fuller, 2008).
In Perrin’s (2003) study of the 15 top grammar websites, he touted many
advantages that these resources possessed as opposed to traditional grammar
instruction, making these resources more appealing and interesting to students.
One advantage was visual interest-colors, pictures, sound, videos, etc. that can
easily be added to an online grammar resource. Another advantage is
navigation-
today’s students are very familiar with how to access key features of a
website, giving them easy access to the grammar elements they want to work on.
A third advantage that he found was the question-answer format-students can
find answers to grammatical questions that maybe they were too afraid to ask
their own teacher in front of a room full of classmates. A fourth advantage was
discussed above-availability. The grammar resources are available all day every
day, whenever it is most convenient for the student to use. A fifth advantage is
the links included on many grammar resources-students can utilize these links to
jump to other websites that achieve different purposes in relation to grammar
instruction. A final advantage that he found was the interactive exercises-
students can quickly and easily quiz their knowledge of a grammatical concept.
They can know right away if they need to study the concept more or if they have
learned the concept well, instead of having to wait for an in-class assignment or
quiz.
5
This paper will address the concepts discussed above when evaluating
one of the many technology-based grammar resources, Noredink. This paper
will discuss both quantitative and qualitative data that will show the effectiveness
of teaching grammatical concepts using technology as well as student
preferences for learning using technology. Differences between technology-
based grammatical learning and traditional instruction (both advantages and
disadvantages) will be addressed as well.
6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review will cover many subtopics related to technology-
based grammar instruction. The literature review starts with a general discussion
of grammatical knowledge, then moves to recommendations for how a
technology-based grammar instructional program should be designed. Next, the
literature review moves to a discussion of how technology-based grammar
programs provide student choice and increase student motivation. After that, the
literature review moves to a discussion of how technology-based grammar
instructional programs are learner-centered and provide instant, individualized
feedback. Then, the literature review discusses how teacher-directed instruction
is still necessary when utilizing a technology-based grammar instruction program.
Next, the literature review discusses various technology-based grammar
instructional programs in action. After that, student perceptions of technology-
based grammar programs is discussed. Then, the literature review moves to a
discussion of grammar and technology and the different types of technology-
based grammar instructional programs that are available for teachers to utilize.
Finally, the literature review summarizes the research and provides a rationale
for the current study.
Grammatical Knowledge
Grammatical knowledge is a key part of a student’s literacy development
(Cambourne, 1995). Grammatical knowledge is vitally important in improving the
7
quality of one’s writing skills. Having the ability to see errors and correct them is
essential in academic and career success. Some researchers such as Weaver
(1996) and Skretta (1996) suggest that exposure to a communicative, input-
based approach will support grammar foundation. Many educators believe that
students’ grammar will improve by being exposed to it, but this is not always the
case (Lys, 2013). On the other hand, neither is only teaching grammar explicitly.
Even after exposure to grammatical knowledge, many students are not able to
apply the learned grammatical concepts to their own writing (Pijls et al., 1987).
This is because many times, grammar is focused on analyzing given sentences
rather than generating original sentences in a practice situation (Pijls et al.,
1987). This shows teachers that perhaps the focus needs to shift towards
grammatical learning that helps students transfer the concepts to their own work.
Program Design
As teachers are looking at technology-based grammar resources, they
need to critically analyze whether the resource is right for their students and their
classes. First and foremost, teachers should make sure that the resource is a
secure, safe technical environment for their students to be using (Wang & Smith,
2013). The program should be simple enough that even students with limited
technological knowledge and at the targeted age group could navigate through
the program after some instruction on how the resource works (Koehler et al.,
2011;
Pijls et al., 1987). The resource should be designed to “meet the unique
needs to particular learning domains in ways
that traditional classrooms can not”
8
(Hegelheimer, 2007, p. 8), otherwise, what is the point of incorporating the
resource? While the resource should be engaging and motivating to students, it
needs to use its key features and interactions in order to support the formal
learning of grammatical concepts (Proske et al., 2014).
Wang & Smith (2013) recommend a resource that delivers smaller chunks
of information at a time. The materials should not be too long or overly
demanding for students. Educational research has long shown
that “acquisition
is enhanced when learnt in comprehensible, manageable pieces” (Wang &
Smith, 2013, p. 119). Koehler et al. (2011) recommend that the resource have
simple linear navigation, and combine the modified deductive (students are given
rules and explanations first, then practice it) and modified inductive (students
practice first, then learn the rules behind the concept) approaches to maximize
student learning. In many programs, the modified deductive approach happens
when students read explanations of grammar concepts that are embedded in the
program. The modified inductive approach happens when students go through
cases and exercises first then read a summary of grammar concepts embedded
in the unit (Koehler et al., 2011). However the program is designed, teachers
must take care to make sure that it is the right fit for their students and their
classroom.
Instructional Design Utilizing Technology
There is a decent amount of literature available about various technology-
enhanced learning design frameworks out there, but Bower and Vlachopoulos
9
(2018) found that many of these papers are theoretical and that the frameworks
have not been implemented and/or evaluated in an actual classroom
environment. They call for more empirical research to be done specifically
focusing on whether a technology-enhanced learning design model provides
better learning outcomes for the students who utilize the program.
Mamun, Lawrie, and Wright (2020) studied the instructional design of
online learning modules and proposed that these learning environments should
follow the POEE (predict, observe, explain and evaluate) model. In order for
students to be successful, they need to be able to self-regulate and be
independent in their learning, which is a factor teachers need to consider when
implementing a technology-based instructional program. Online learning should
include both student-content and student-teacher interactions. Teachers should
provide instructional support and scaffolding as needed, along with the
instructional scaffolding built into the program they are utilizing. The authors also
point out that feedback is a very important component of technology-based
learning programs. Students need to be provided with feedback in order to self-
assess and be aware of any mistakes that they are making so that they can re-
visit and re-explore the concept as needed.
One of the benefits of technology-enhanced learning design is that it
allows students to have more control over what, how, and when they learn
(Kessler, 2018). In addition, “game-based practices have also been shown to
support autonomy, social engagement,
and motivation, and...increase students’
10
willingness to participate by helping to engage learners and allow them to feel
comfortable, confident, and connected to real-
world goals” (Kessler, 2018, p.
210). Technology-enhanced learning design is beneficial to teachers because,
through collecting data about both group and individual performance, it allows
them to better understand whole-group and individual strengths and
weaknesses. This can allow teachers to provide individualized and whole-class
interventions and supports. Kessler (2018) states that teacher preparation for
using technology-enhanced learning is lagging behind. He proposes that teacher
preparation programs provide better opportunities for teachers to learn about and
evaluate their learning goals and how those can be achieved by designing their
instruction to include technology.
Student Choice and Motivation
One important feature that technology-based grammar instruction
resources provide is student choice, which can lead to increased student
motivation. Many studies have shown that technology-based instruction
motivates students to learn (Hegelheimer, 2007; Sagarra & Zapata, 2008; Wang
& Smith, 2013). They become more engaged with what they are learning and are
willing to spend more time on difficult topics compared to encountering difficult
topics with a traditional (paper and pencil) assignment (Sagarra & Zapata, 2008).
Students enjoy the fact that they can review tutorials at their own pace and as
many times as they want, without a time restriction like they would face in a
traditional environment (Nutta, 1998). They can learn the concepts as slowly or
11
as quickly as they need to. Nutta’s (1998) study showed that this control over the
program lead to increased achievement in the targeted grammar concepts. In
Lys’ (2013) study, he found that even when students were not required to retake
the web-based grammar quizzes to achieve a better score, the majority of the
students would retake the quizzes until they had achieved a score of 80% or
above. Another reason these resources are motivating to students is that many
technology based grammar resources allow students to see content created by
other students and even submit their own writing for grammar analysis. Wang &
Smith (2013) saw that including grammar materials created by other students
increased the motivation of students to complete the assignments. Pijls et al.
(1987) saw in their study that the ability to devise their own sentences led to
increased student motivation as well.
Proske et al. (2014) argue that these resources fulfill all four components
of the ARCS model (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) that
help students become and stay motivated. Their attention is grabbed with the
interactive, multimedia components present on the resource. They can see the
relevance of the instruction when they are able to look at examples from other
students or submit their own work for grammar analysis. As they progress
through the resource, students experience success with mastering the grammar
concepts, which leads to increased confidence in their grammar abilities and their
own writing. Finally, students have expressed high satisfaction with learning
grammar concepts in this way over the traditional method.
12
Learner-Centered
Another positive aspect of technology-based grammar instruction is the
fact that many of these resources are extremely learner-centered. Educational
research has for many years touted the benefits of learner-centered pedagogical
approaches (Wang & Smith, 2013). Technology-based grammar instruction is
naturally inquiry-based and provides formative learning experiences for students
and detailed formative data for teachers (Potter & Fuller, 2008). These programs
take grammar beyond a textbook or workbook and can focus in on each
individual student’s grammar knowledge and writing needs. This type of resource
can provide both implicit and explicit learning, and students (and teachers) can
adjust instructional support (pop-ups, performance aids, etc.) in the program at
any time during their interaction with the program (Koehler et al., 2011). These
supports can be “viewed and reviewed at the learner’s own pace” (Nutta, 1998,
p. 50). Learners that need more intensive help can receive it, while learners that
have already mastered the concept can quickly review that grammatical concept
and then move on to another grammatical area. Koehler et al.’s (2011) study
showed that even when studying the same grammatical concepts, “participants
with different levels of prior knowledge learned different things through the
program” (p. 951). Each student can start to develop their own awareness of
grammatical strengths and weaknesses. These technology based programs
allow students to build confidence in their abilities before incorporating what they
have learned into their own writing (Proske et al., 2014). As Hegelheimer (2007)
13
points out, once students are aware of their own grammatical error patterns, this
is the first step to achieving higher proficiency academically.
Feedback
Arguably, the feature that seems to be most useful for both students and
teachers is the fact that detailed feedback can be provided instantly on
technology-based grammar resources (Koehler et al., 2011; Pijls et al., 1987;
Proske et al., 2014; Sagarra & Zapata, 2008). Much feedback using traditional
grammar instruction is uninformative-general corrections given to the whole class
by the teacher, with no individual comments to specific students, and no
explanation of why those answers are correct (Pijls et al., 1987). Traditional
feedback is often delayed as well-
sometimes it’s a week or two after the
assignment was handed in before it is passed back. Or, sometimes teachers
provide no feedback at all (doesn’t hand back assignments, or just marks right
and wrong answers with no explanation). This is a huge disadvantage, as
students are not able to complete multiple attempts in order to gain a better
understanding of the material or incorporate any feedback they receive into
subsequent classroom assignments (Sagarra & Zapata, 2008).
Feedback on a technology based grammar resource can be provided
based on each individual student
’s actions. Students can use this instantaneous
feedback to check their answers, see where their logic is flawed, and compare
their answers to correct answers (Koehler et al., 2011). This helps students learn
how to self-regulate their own learning and growth in the targeted concepts
14
(Proske et al., 2014). Teachers and students can use this feedback to develop a
diagnosis of their grammar strengths and weaknesses, and use this data to
“provide relevant additional explanation and practising material” (Pijls et al.,
1987). Also, for those students that are afraid to experience corrective feedback
in the classroom setting (in front of their peers) and have a negative viewpoint on
corrective feedback, they are able to experience their feedback individually
without any of the perceived negativity (Sagarra & Zapata, 2008). Sagarra &
Zapata’s (2008) survey of students who completed a technology-based grammar
program overwhelmingly said that the ongoing, instant feedback in the program
is what made their grammar effectiveness improve.
There can be a downside to all of this feedback, however. Many
programs have “canned” feedback, which means that the feedback approaches
the grammar error the same way every time, without being able to analyze the
sentence in the context of the entire written assignment (Dembsey, 2017). This is
a flaw of grammar programs-they cannot check for meaning (Rieber, 1992).
Dembsey (2017) also discusses how the large amounts of feedback provided by
these types of programs might become overwhelming to some students, and
lead them to become less motivated about learning grammar and improving their
writing skills. Additionally, many of the feedback prompts these types of
programs provide are riddled with technical grammar terms (some of which are
not explained at all or not explained very clearly). Students must be able to
decipher these technical terms in order to learn from them. Also, students
15
typically only receive feedback when they have made a mistake, not when they
have done something really well. These are multiple areas where teacher-
directed grammar instruction comes into play.
Teacher-Directed Instruction
Much traditional grammar instruction is seen by students as dull and
uninspiring, and many students feel that the exercises can be completed without
much thought or rule application (Pijls et al., 1987). Many students also feel that,
at times (and for a variety of reasons), a teacher’s explanation is not helpful.
(Koehler et a
l., 2011). Teachers also can’t be working with each individual
student one-on-one during class time, and especially not outside of school hours
when students are completing homework (Dembsey, 2017).
When a technology-based grammar program is incorporated into a
classroom, it should definitely not be thrown at the students with no further
explanations of grammatical concepts or teacher monitoring of students’
progress. As Hegelheimer (2007
) puts it, “teachers obviously have an important
role to play” (p. 7). Instead, these resources should be blended with classroom
activities and enhance a teacher’s pedagogy (Perrin, 2003). As Potter and Fuller
(2008) argue
, “students can learn from the grammar checker, but not without my
guidance” (p. 36). Teachers should first provide some initial instruction on using
the chosen program (Rieber, 1992), making sure that students are not just
employing a trial-and-error strategy without reading any instructions (Proske et
al., 2014). Then they should provide some instruction on the various grammar
16
rules and terminology addressed in units being covered in the program (Rieber,
1992). Throughout the implementation of the program, teachers need to be
available to answer questions and monitor students’ progress (Wang & Smith,
2013). They should correct any misinformation provided by the grammar
program or any misunderstandings that the student is experiencing. Potter and
Fuller (2008) state that the grammar program should be seen as a partner in the
classroom, helping teachers notice instructional gaps that need to be filled. Nutta
(1998) and Sagarra and Zapata (2008) both showed that incorporating
technology-based grammar instruction with face-to-face interaction allowed the
teacher to devote more class time to real communication, and Dembsey (2017)
says this allows more time for teachers to focus on global issues with writing
instead of specific grammatical concepts.
Technology-Based Grammar Instruction in Action
Nutta’s (1998) students showed no differences in multiple-choice or fill-in-
the-blank questions, but the technology group was significantly higher on open-
ended questions. Koehler et al.’s (2011) students all used the technology-based
grammar program, and their abilities also increased, but especially on
constructed-response questions and in their transfer abilities. Their ability to use
present and past simple passive voice had an average increase of 3.6 points (out
of 20). Their second group of four students (after tweaking some things in their
program) also showed similar results as the first group. Additionally, the students
17
with the lowest pre-test scores had the highest amount of increase from using the
program.
Lys’ (2013) study had some different, mixed results from Nutta (1998) and
Koehler et al. (2011). This group showed overall gains on all tests, but the
students that spent more time on the technology-based grammar program only
showed bigger gains on chapter quizzes, and not on written or oral tasks. Their
results did show, however, that the technology-based instruction students made
fewer errors in their essays, and made gains on oral proficiency, written
assessments, and cloze-tests. It is unclear why the results about these students
were mixed.
Sagarra and Zapata
’s (2008) technology-based students performed better
on the post-tests than the traditional grammar instruction students, especially on
sentence completion and grammaticality judgement. The gains in these students
were even more than traditional-instruction students after a longer time period
(eight months). Rie
ber’s (1992) results showed that the computer-based students
were more aware of the passive voice, and they had better strategies for locating
passive voice and deciding if it was used appropriately or not. Hegelheimer’s
(2007) students also showed more awareness and knowledge about their
grammatical errors, and could approach their errors more carefully and
methodically when making revisions. They also made fewer mistakes overall.
For Potter and Fuller (2008)
, their students’ standardized test scores strongly
improved in grammar areas that were assessed. Finally, Proske
et al.’s (2014)
18
study showed that game-based technology instruction was just as effective as
traditional-grammar instruction.
Perceptions of Online Programs
Across the board, students that participated in technology-based grammar
instruction programs were very satisfied with learning the concepts in this way.
They felt that instruction in this way helped to improve their grammar abilities
more than conventional instruction would have (Koehler et al., 2011; Lys, 2013;
Wang & Smith, 2013). Besides the educational gains, students thought that the
material was much more interesting when it was presented in this way versus
working with a traditional program (Hegelheimer, 2007; Koehler et al., 2011; Lys,
2013; Proske et al., 2014; Sagarra & Zapata, 2008). Students enjoyed the fact
that a computer-based program allowed them to switch modalities (Koehler et al.,
2011), which also led to students being more willing to spend more time using
the program, even when they were not required to for their classwork (Nutta,
1998). If students are happy with what they are doing, that is a big win for
teachers.
Grammar and Technology
There are many technology-based grammar programs available to
teachers and students. Teachers need to analyze the technology based
grammar resources available and decide which site(s) best fit their students’
targeted needs. In 2003, Perrin analyzed the 15 most popular grammar sites
and organized them into six different types: Informational Sites, Interactive
19
Exercise Sites, Expert Sites, Resource Sites, School Sites, and Commercial
Sites. Informational Sites share information about grammatical concepts, much
like an online version of a traditional grammar textbook or workbook. Interactive
Exercise Sites provide practice opportunities in different grammatical concepts
for students to complete. Expert Sites follow a question and answer format-users
submit questions and the grammar “expert” answers them and archives the
questions and responses for users to search. The Resource Sites just provide
lists of links to other available grammar websites. The School Sites are run by a
specific college or university’s writing programs or writing centers, and are
geared specifically towards students attending that institution. Finally,
Commercial Sites are sites that are trying to sell grammar related materials or
services to their users. Different grammar website categories are useful for
different situations and different student populations.
Summary of Literature Review
When looking through the literature, it became clear that, overall, not a lot
of research has been completed about the effects of traditional grammar
instruction versus technology-based grammar instruction. The research that is
out there mainly focused on college-age students, students in a foreign country,
or adult learners who are learning a second language. Students who are learning
a second language have different motivation and needs from students that are
learning grammar in their native language. Various results of these research
studies is discussed above in the
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