Teacher professional development as a means of transforming student
classroom talk
Klara Sedova
*
, Martin Sedlacek, Roman Svaricek
Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
h i g h l i g h t s
We examined the effects of a teacher development programme focused on the implementation of dialogic teaching.
A change in classroom discourse parameters was identified. The amount of talk with reasoning increased.
Student talk with reasoning is related to the occurrence of other indicators of dialogic teaching.
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 September 2015
Received in revised form
2 March 2016
Accepted 7 March 2016
Available online 22 March 2016
Keywords:
Teacher development programme
Dialogic teaching
Student talk
Open discussion
Teacher questions
Uptake
Action research
a b s t r a c t
This study deals with the impact of a teacher development programme focused on the implementation of
dialogic teaching practice. Four indicators of dialogic teaching were measured: student talk with
reasoning, teachers' open questions of high cognitive demand, teacher uptake, and open discussion. An
analysis of video recordings made before and after the programme showed a change in classroom
discourse and an increase in the amount of student talk with reasoning, attributed to changes in teacher
communication behaviour. The participants were eight Czech teachers in lower secondary schools who
took part in a one-year action research teacher development programme.
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
).
1. Introduction
Classroom discourse
e forms of talk in the classroom and their
educational functions
e is a key topic in the educational sciences.
Researchers increasingly agree that learning is most effective when
students are actively involved in a dialogic co-construction of
meaning (
Wells
& Arauz, 2006
). One approach to the dialogic co-
construction of meaning, termed
‘dialogic teaching’ (
Alexander,
2006; Lyle, 2008; Reznistkaya
& Gregory, 2013
), aims to use
communication to promote higher cognitive functions in students.
“Dialogic teaching harnesses the power of talk to engage children,
stimulate and extend their thinking, and advance their learning and
understanding
” (
Alexander, 2006
, p. 37). Other important features
of dialogic teaching are engaged students, student autonomy and
the fact that students are allowed to in
fluence the course of action
in the classroom, at least to a certain extent. Power relations be-
tween teacher and students are
flexible; there is room for negoti-
ation as to what constitutes an adequate answer (
Resnistkaya
&
Gregory, 2013
).
Despite evidence (e.g.,
Billings
& Fitzgerald, 2002; Gutierrez,
1994; Kutnick
& Colwell, 2010; Mercer & Littleton, 2007; Scott,
Ametller, Mortimer,
& Emberton, 2010
) that dialogic teaching is
possible and bene
ficial, research based on larger samples has
consistently shown the prevalence of a transmissive mode of in-
struction in which teachers present to students certain facts and
then check whether students have learned them (
Wells
& Arauz,
2006
). Teachers ask students a large number of questions that are
mostly closed-ended, i.e., certain answers are seen as correct and it
is the students' task to produce these answers. These questions are
typically characterised by a low level of cognitive demand,
requiring students merely to show that they remember subject
* Corresponding author. Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Arts,
Masaryk University, Arna Novaka 1, 602 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
E-mail addresses:
ksedova@phil.muni.cz
(K. Sedova),
msedlace@phil.muni.cz
(M. Sedlacek),
svaricek@phil.muni.cz
(R. Svaricek).
Contents lists available at
ScienceDirect
Teaching and Teacher Education
j o u r n a l h o me p a g e :
w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m/ l o ca t e / t a t e
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.03.005
0742-051X/
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
).
Teaching and Teacher Education 57 (2016) 14
e25
matter presented to them earlier. Student answers are short and
simple and are usually lists of learned facts, corresponding to the
requirements of the teacher's questions. The teacher's feedback is
usually a brief response to the correctness or otherwise of the
student's answer; the development of a student's answer or sug-
gestions for further consideration are generally absent. Although
there are studies evidencing the ability of students to autono-
mously in
fluence, to a certain degree, the patterns of classroom
discourse (see e.g.,
Rampton, 2006
), it is important to bear in mind
that classroom interaction is shaped by cultural norms
“limiting the
times at which students can talk, the topics they can legitimately
address, and the ways in which they can express themselves
” (
Segal
& Lefstein, 2015
).
These features of communication in lessons, discussed in a
number of international research studies (
Alexander, 2001; Burns
&
Myhill, 2004
;
Kumpulainen
& Lipponen, 2010; Nystrand, Gamoran,
Kachur,
& Prendergast, 1997; Parker & Hurry, 2007; Sedova,
Salamounova,
& Svaricek, 2014
) demonstrate that dialogic
methods are rarely part of teachers' inventories of teaching
methods. One possible explanation is that teachers do not get the
kind of educational support that would allow them to implement
dialogic teaching in their work. According to
Corden (2009)
,
teachers probably did not encounter this type of teaching when
they were students themselves, nor were they systematically
trained in this method in the course of their pre-service education.
To address this gap, we designed and implemented a professional
development programme
e focused on the implementation of a
dialogic approach into teaching practice
e for lower secondary
school teachers in the Czech Republic. The questions we posed
were whether the project led to a change of classroom discourse
parameters, and if so, what were the main variables contributing to
this shift.
2. Theoretical background
The term dialogic teaching is most directly associated with
Alexander (2006)
, who states that spoken language should play a
central role in teaching, since it provides an opportunity to in
flu-
ence students' thought processes through their involvement in
classroom discourse. Questions in dialogic teaching are structured
in such a manner so as to provoke thoughtful answers and these
answers are supposed to provoke further new questions. This
serves to create a coherent line of enquiry (
Alexander, 2006
, p. 41).
Among his inspirational sources,
Alexander (2005, 2006)
empha-
sizes in particular Vygotsky and Bakhtin.
Vygotsky (1978, 1981)
believed that there is a strong connection
between thinking and speaking; he pointed to the central role of
language in the development of higher mental functions. At the
same time, he claimed that each psychological function appears
twice in the development of a child,
first on the social level (i.e., in
the interaction between the child and other people), and second on
the individual level (the level of internalised psychological pro-
cesses). It follows from this reasoning that a child can adopt and
appropriate other people's voices, ideas and thought processes as a
tool for its own thinking and learning. Classroom talk is in this
conception considered the most essential cultural tool mediating
learning (
Lehesvuori, 2013
). More recently
Sfard (2007, 2008)
uses
the term commognition
e coined as a blend of communication and
cognition
e in order to emphasise the indivisibility of these two
phenomena. She recommends viewing learning not as acquisition
of knowledge, but as participation in a certain discourse. Simply
put, if a student if a student is engaging in a discourse and per-
forming cognitive operations at a high level, then learning has
taken place (
Sfard, 2008
).
Bakhtin (1981)
concerned himself with micro processes of
discourse and language. He used the term dialogism in the sense of
switching between various mental perspectives and the interani-
mation of different voices. This means that each participant brings
to communication something unique and original. The consequent
mixing of various elements creates a dialogue in which individual
voices react to one another, each utterance responding to the pre-
vious one and stimulating the following one. In the situation of a
school class where classroom discourse is not controlled by the
teacher but, rather, the teacher's and various students' perspectives
and positions are presented, creating a polyphony of voices, then
students' thinking, creativity and learning abilities develop because
problems are better understood thanks to the realization of dif-
ferences (see
Mortimer
& Scott, 2003
).
Nystrand et al. (1997)
distinguish dialogically versus mono-
logically organised instruction, depending on whether the construc-
tion of meaning involves several voices (students and teacher), or one
voice (the teacher as the only one to decide what is valid knowledge).
A more elaborated view is offered by
Mortimer and Scott (2003)
,
who, inspired by
Bakhtin (1981)
, distinguish between authoritative
and dialogic discourse. Authoritative discourse aims to deliver and
achieve the reproduction of speci
fic content that is considered to be
true and accurate whereas the aim of dialogic discourse is to offer
content for thought. Such content is open to questioning and alter-
native perspectives. An approach common in schools is when the
teacher asks questions of the students to check their memorised
knowledge and the students answer. This form of discourse cannot be
considered dialogic (see also
Scott, 2008; Scott et al. 2010
).
In schools, the presence of both types of discourse is desirable,
since authoritative discourse guarantees continuity and the reliable
transmission of culturally valued content, while dialogic discourse
encourages creativity and allows for innovation. Indeed,
Nurkka,
Viiri, Littleton, and Lehesvuori (2014)
suggest that the teacher
should alternate between authoritative and dialogic discourse, and
thus create a rhythm in classroom discourse. However, the research
cited above shows that while authoritative talk between teacher
and students is abundant in schools, genuine dialogue is rare.
2.1. Indicators of dialogic teaching
Through engaging students in a rich and stimulating discourse,
with different voices being heard, dialogic teaching develops
mental activity, deepens thinking and enriches understanding. But
how is such teaching to be recognised? Scholars involved in
empirical exploration of the issue have drawn on different in-
dicators to determine the presence of dialogic teaching.
Nystrand
et al. (1997)
(see also
Nystrand, Wu, Gamoran, Zeiser,
& Long,
2001; Applebee, Langer, Nystrand,
& Gamoran, 2003
) employs
the following criteria: (1) authentic questions
e open-ended ques-
tions which aim to reveal a student's ideas and opinions and for
which there is no set answer; (2) uptake
e a situation in which the
speaker builds on what has been said by the previous speaker,
increasing the coherence of the dialogue; (3) higher order teacher
feedback
e comments on the correctness or incorrectness of a
student's response, as well as more elaborate feedback on the
content of the student's response; (4) open discussion
e a sequence
that includes at least three participants who respond to each other
for more than 30 s.
Alongside these widely accepted indicators, other researchers
also suggest: total student talk time during interactive sequences
(
Molinari
& Mameli, 2013
), triadic interaction
e discursive se-
quences that involve at least three actors (
Molinari
& Mameli, 2013;
2015
), the occurrence of student questions (
Nystrand et al., 2001
),
the expression by students of thoughts with reasoning (
Pimentel
&
McNeill, 2013
), the presence of elaborated explanation in student
talk (
Sotter et al., 2008
), the open-endedness and cognitive
K. Sedova et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 57 (2016) 14
e25
15
demandingness of questions (
Gayle, Preiss,
& Allen, 2006
), the use
of mistakes as opportunities (
Myhill
& Warren, 2005
), and probing
questions or tossing back students' ideas by the teacher (
Pimentel
& McNeill, 2013
). Each of these indicators can be to a certain
extent considered as an indicator of dialogic teaching.
However, some researchers have also articulated the view that
the presence of indicators is no guarantee of dialogic teaching.
Boyd
and Markarian (2011, 2015)
, for instance, reject indicators as such
since they re
flect only surface features. They regard, for instance,
the indicator of openness of teacher questions as ambiguous. In
their opinion, closed-ended questions are also capable of encour-
aging students to participate actively in an open discussion, which
is evidenced by their case study of a teacher who uses closed-ended
questions to spark discussion. An inverse example is provided by
Lefstein, Snell, and Israeli (2015)
who argue that a teacher can ask
open-ended
questions
without
stimulating
elaborate
and
thoughtful responses on the part of students. They also conclude
that an individual discourse move cannot be used as an indicator of
the dialogic character of instruction.
Alexander (2006)
accepts that indicators serve as a hint, but the
decisive factor is the basic epistemology of classroom interaction,
i.e., the degree to which students are required to think and
formulate ideas themselves, rather than simply repeat somebody
else's ideas. From this point of view, some indicators may be
considered more reliable than others. If the aim of dialogic teaching
is to have students who are engaged and stimulated to think
(
Alexander, 2006
), it may be better to concentrate on the charac-
teristics of student speech, rather than on those of teacher speech.
Expressing a complete thought with reasoning (
Pimentel
&
McNeill, 2013
) or the presence of elaborated explanation in stu-
dent talk (
Sotter et al., 2008
) can be considered as indicators that
re
flect dialogic discourse better than, for example, teacher ques-
tions and feedback.
2.2. Teacher professional development as a path to dialogic
teaching
Dialogic teaching de
fines the role of the teacher in a specific
manner. To some extent, the teacher has to make room for students
to speak more and must attribute greater epistemic weight to
student talk than in the classic transmissive mode of instruction.
This does not mean, however, that the teacher steps back into the
role of a facilitator; dialogic teaching requires both student
engagement and teacher intervention (
Alexander, 2006
). This view
is based on Vygotsky's concept of the teacher as a competent adult
who introduces the child to the symbolic system of the given cul-
ture. According to
Corden (2009)
, teachers should not try to sup-
press their expert role, but as much as possible should use their
expertise to develop the child's expertise.
Although the ultimate goal of dialogic teaching is the productive
participation of students in classroom discourse, it is the teachers who
create the conditions for this participation. Therefore, it is important
to provide teachers with educational opportunities that will enable
them to establish dialogic teaching in their classes. A number of
projects of this type have been implemented; here we will limit our
discussion to those that were at the same time conceived as research.
This means that teachers received educational support and scienti
fic
methods were applied to monitor whether any shift towards dialogic
teaching occurred in their teaching practice.
As far as methodology is concerned, these research and devel-
opment projects typically use video recordings of the lessons to
document the method of teaching. As indicated by
Borko, Jacobs,
Eiteljorg, and Pittman (2008)
, video is presently a prominent tool
of teacher training because of its unique ability to capture the
richness and complexity of classrooms for later analysis. For this
reason, video is an outstanding tool in any educational research.
2.2.1. Previous research
Chinn, Anderson, and Waggoner (2001)
trained teachers in how
to use a collaborative reasoning technique, an approach to litera-
ture discussion intended to stimulate critical reading and thinking
as well as personal engagement. Four teachers and their Grade 4
classes participated in the project. In a
first step, a classroom video
recording was made of each participating teacher. Subsequently,
the teachers took part in a workshop focused on the use of
collaborative reasoning. Teachers then prepared lessons using
collaborative reasoning. Each teacher worked in tandem with one
researcher who followed the progress of the teaching and discussed
it with the teacher. At the end of the project, two video recordings
of each teacher's lessons were made and compared with their
first
video recording, made before teachers attended the workshop. This
comparison revealed an increase in dialogic indicators
e students
had begun to talk more in class and teachers, in contrast, talked
less. The proportion of students' responses to other students rose
dramatically while the proportion of students' elaborated utter-
ances providing evidence for a claim or offering alternative per-
spectives also rose. The total number of teacher questions fell, but
the proportion of authentic questions rose.
Wells and Arauz (2006)
conducted a professional development
programme, which lasted for seven years and had a fairly open
structure. The participants were teachers interested in adopting an
inquiry orientation to classroom discourse. The length of their
involvement in the project varied. The group met over the years at
workshops and discussion sessions. The nine teachers involved
made regular video recordings of their own teaching. Researchers
then divided the recorded episodes, according to whether they
were taken in the initial or
final phase of the project. These files
were then compared to determine whether there had been a
change in classroom discourse as a result of participation in the
project. Researchers were interested primarily in instances of open
discussion. They noted that there had been an increase in the
number of discussion-type sequences, but the proportion of these
sequences remained low.
Lefstein and Snell (2014)
and
Snell and Lefstein (2011)
also
carried out a development programme for teachers and monitored
whether communication in the classroom became more dialogic.
The programme was conducted at a single primary school and
involved bi-weekly professional development workshops, in which
the researchers facilitated collaborative lesson planning and
re
flection on video-recorded excerpts of the classroom practice of
seven teachers.
Snell and Lefstein (2011)
subsequently compared
selected indicators (especially type of teacher questions and types
of teacher feedback) across the sample in order to determine
whether there had been a shift towards dialogic teaching. An in-
crease in the openness of the teacher questions was the only
common pattern found.
Osborne,
Simon,
Christodoulou,
Howell-Richardson,
and
Richardson (2013)
collaborated with eight teachers from four lower
secondary schools. Over the course of two years, the teachers
attended
five workshop days with the researchers and subse-
quently were supposed to disseminate the knowledge gained at
their school through re
flective meetings with other teachers. The
workshops were mainly devoted to the question of how to engage
students in discussion and how to get them to argue and to model
this argumentation. Between the workshops, researchers visited
the schools and collected data, including making video recordings,
but did not provide teachers with systematic feedback on their
teaching. They relied on the expectation that the process of pro-
fessional growth would stem from the teachers themselves. How-
ever, their subsequent evaluation of student performance failed to
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