face?” Then they asked the next person, “Which of these is the angry face?” And so on. Finally,
they tallied all the responses.
And what did they find? That when you redo Ekman’s foundational experiment—only this time,
carefully and rigorously—the case for universalism disappears. Over the past few years the
floodgates have opened, which is where much of the research I described in this chapter comes
from.
A few additional points:
Ekman’s original
Science paper is, upon reflection, a little strange. He argued that what he found
in the Fore was evidence of universalism. But if you examine his data, it doesn’t look like he’s
describing universalism.
The Fore were really good at correctly identifying happy faces, but only about half of them
correctly identified the “fear” face as being an expression of fear. Forty-five percent of them
thought the surprised face was a fearful face. Fifty-six percent of them read sadness as anger.
This is universalism?
Crivelli made a very insightful remark when we were talking about the people (like Ekman) who
so favored the universalism idea. Many of them belonged to the generation that grew up in the
aftermath of the Second World War. They were born into a world obsessed with human
difference—in which black people were thought to be genetically inferior and Jews were held to
be damaged and malignant—and they were powerfully drawn to a theory that maintained we are
all the same.
It is important to note, however, that the work of anti-universalists is
not a refutation of Ekman’s
contributions. Everyone in the field of human emotion is in some crucial sense standing on his
shoulders. People like Jarillo and Crivelli are simply arguing that you can’t understand emotion
without taking culture into account.
To quote psychologist Lisa Feldman Barrett—one of the leaders in challenging the Ekman view
—“emotions are…made and not triggered.” (See her book
How Emotions Are Made [New York:
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017], p. xiii.) Each of us, over the course of our lives, builds our
own set of operating instructions for our face, based on the culture and environment we inhabit.
The face is a symbol of how different human beings are, not how similar we are, which is a big
problem if your society has created a rule for understanding strangers based on reading faces.
For a good summary of this new line of research, see L. F. Barrett et al., “Emotional expressions
reconsidered: Challenges to inferring emotion in human facial movements,”
Psychological
Science in the Public Interest (in press), as well as Barrett’s
Emotions (cited above).
Photos of Pan-Am smile and Duchenne smile: Jason Vandeventer and Eric Patterson,
“Differentiating Duchenne from non-Duchenne smiles using active appearance models,”
2012
IEEE Fifth International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS)
(2012): 319–24.
Facial Action Coding System units for Ross looking through door: Paul Ekman and Erika L
Rosenberg, eds.,
What the Face Reveals: Basic and Applied Studies of Spontaneous Expression
Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS), Second Edition (Oxford University Press: New
York, 2005), p.14.
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