Activity
✪
Activity
✪
Activity
✪
Note: the reporting clause here is ‘she asked
herself
’ (and not ‘she asked’)
suggesting not externalised speech as such but an internalised process more
characteristic of thought presentation.
d
‘We must leave tonight.’ (FDS)
We must leave tonight. (FDS – freest form)
She said that they had to leave that night. (IS)
They had to leave that night. (FIS)
She stressed the urgency of their time of departure. (NRS)
Note: the NRS form feels cumbersome – which tends to underscore the
point made in A8 about those situations when it is sometimes easier to use
an explicit mode of speech presentation.
e
‘Help yourselves.’ (FDS)
Help yourselves. (FDS)
He urged them to help themselves. (IS)
He encouraged them to tuck in. (NRS)
Note: This is one of those situations when no FIS form is possible. The
grammatical block is activated here by the verb ‘help’ which is in its
imperative
form. Imperatives have no Subject elements (see A3) and cannot
be backshifted to the past tense. Although the IS form gets around the
problem by making the verb infinitive (‘to help’), the FIS form needs to use
a backshifted past. The result, ‘Helped themselves’, just doesn’t make sense.
LITERATURE AS DISCOURSE: THE LITERARY SPEECH
SITUATION
This reading is taken from Mary Louise Pratt’s grounding-breaking book,
Toward a
Speech Act Theory of Literary Discourse
, which was published in the 1970s. Pratt’s
emphasis throughout her monograph is generally on the nature of literature as dis-
course and more specifically on the speech act status of various types of literary ‘utter-
ance’. Her perspective is one which views literary communication as dynamic action,
and following the tenets of speech act theory, as action which is brought about by
utterances in real contexts of use. Pratt develops and illustrates this strongly inter-
active conceptualisation of literary discourse using a range of models in pragmatics
and conversation analysis and, of course, in speech act theory and natural language
philosophy of the sort embodied in the work of Austin (1962), Searle (1969) and Grice
(1975). As the reading reveals, she also makes use of Labov’s model of narrative nar-
rative which featured across strand 5 of this book. The particular excerpt reproduced
here outlines the ‘literary speech situation’, exploring principally the communicative
dynamic between the literary ‘speaker’ and, what Pratt terms, the literary
Audience
.
196
E X T E N S I O N
D9
The literary speech situation
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