particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation, also known as beta rays.
Big Bang:
The huge “explosion” 13.7 billion years ago in which theuniverse (including all space, time
and energy) is thought to have been created. According to this theory, the universe began in a superdense, super-hot state and has been expanding and cooling ever since. The phrase was coined by Fred
Hoyle during a 1949 radio broadcast.
Big Crunch:
One possible scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the gravity of the matter in
the universe (providing that there is in fact a “critical mass”) will one day halt and reverse
the universe’s expansion in a mirror image of the Big Bang, causing it to collapse into a black
hole singularity. However, in the light of recent evidence for an accelerating universe, this is no
longer considered the most likely outcome.
Black Body:
An idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiationthat falls on it, without passing
through and without reflection. The radiation emitted from a black body is mostly infrared lightat
room temperature, but as the temperature increases it starts to emit visible wavelengths, from red
through to blue, and then ultraviolet light at very high temperatures.
Black Hole:
The warped space-time remaining after the gravity of a massive body has caused it to shrink down
to a point. It is a region of empty space with a point-like singularity at the centre and anevent
horizon at the outer edge. It is so dense that no normalmatter or radiation can escape its gravitational
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field, so that nothing - not even light - can ever leave (hence its blackness). It is thought that
most galaxies have a supermassive black hole at their heart.
C
Classical
Physics:
A general term used to describe the physics based on principles developed before the rise of general
relativity and quantum mechanics, essentially physics as it had existed up to the early years of the
20th Century. It includes the mechanics of Galileo and Newton, the electrodynamics of Maxwell, the
thermodynamics of Boyle and Kelvin, and usually even the special relativity of Einstein.
Complementarity:
The idea in quantum theory that items can be separately analyzed as having several contradictory,
and apparently mutually exclusive, properties. For example, the wave-particle duality of light,
wherelight can either behave as a particle or as wave, but not simultaneously as both.
Copernican
Principle:
The idea that there is nothing special about our position in the universe, a generalized version of
Nicolaus Copernicus’ recognition that the Earth is actually just a planet circling the Sun, and not vice
versa.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation:
Cosmic microwave background radiation (or CMB for short) is the “afterglow” of the Big Bang, a
microwave radiation which still uniformly permeates all of space at a temperature of around -270°C
(about 3° above absolute zero). It is considered to be the best evidence for the standard Big
Bang model of theuniverse.
Cosmic Inflation:
The idea that, in the first split-second after the Big Bang, theuniverse underwent a fantastically
fast (exponential) expansion driven by the vacuum of empty space. The theory was developed
by Alan Guth in the early 1980s to explain certain problems and inconsistencies with the basic Big
Bang theory, such as those related to the large-scale structure of the features of the universe, the
“horizon problem”, the “flatness problem” and the “magnetic monopole problem”.
Cosmic
Rays:
High speed, energetic particles (about 90% of which are protons) originating from space that impinge
on Earth's atmosphere. Some are generated by our own Sun, some by supernovas, some by as yet
unknown events in the farthest reaches of the visible universe. The term "ray" is a misnomer, as
cosmic particles arrive individually, not in the form of a ray or beam of particles.
Cosmological
Constant:
A term added by Albert Einstein as a modification to his original theory of general relativity, in order
to balance the attractive force of gravity and achieve a static or stationary universe. It represents the
possibility that there is a density and pressure associated with apparently empty space, and that the
overall mass-energy of the universe is actually much greater than currently estimated. Once
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dismissed as just a mathematical “fix”, it has been revived in recent years with the discovery of the
apparent acceleration of the expansion of the universe.
Cosmological Principle:
The starting point for the General Theory of Relativity and theBig Bang theory is that, that
averaged over large distances, one part of the universe looks approximately like any other part, and
that, viewed on sufficiently large distance scales, there are no preferred directions or preferred places
in the universe. Stated in more technical terms, on large spatial scales, the universe is homogeneous
and isotropic.
Critical Mass (Critical Density):
As applied to the universe as a whole, critical mass refers to the total required mass of matter in
the universe which will allow the effects of gravity to overcome its continued outward expansion. If
the universe contains more than the critical mass of matter, its gravity will eventually reverse the
expansion, causing the universe to collapse back to what has become known as the Big Crunch. If,
however, it contains insufficientmatter, it will go on expanding forever. In the same way, critical
density is that overall density of thematter in the universe which will just allow continued expansion.
In other contexts, critical mass is also used to refer to the amount of fissile material needed to
sustainnuclear fission.
D
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Dark Energy:
An invisible, hypothetical form of energy with repulsive gravitythat permeates all of space and
that may explain recent observations that the universe appears to be expanding at an accelerating rate.
In some models of cosmology, dark energy accounts for 74% of the total mass-energy of
the universe. Its exact nature remains a mystery, although Einstein’s hypothesized “cosmological
constant” is now considered a promising candidate.
Dark
Matter:
Matter that gives out no light and does not interact with the electromagnetic force, but whose
presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. It is estimated that there may be
between 6 and 7 times as much dark matter as normal, bright matter in the universe, although its
exact nature remains a mystery.
Decoherence:
The process by which bodies and quantum systems lose some of their more unusual quantum
properties (e.g. superposition, or the ability to appear in different places simultaneously) as they
interact with their environments. When a particle decoheres, itsprobability wave collapses,
any quantum superpositionsdisappear and it settles into its observed state under classical physics.
Density:
The mass of an object divided by its volume, a measure of how much it is compacted or crowded
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together (e.g. air is low in density, iron is high). Boyle’s Law dictates that a substance increases in
density as its pressure is increased or as its temperature is decreased.
Dimensions:
Independent directions in space-time. We are familiar with the three dimensions of space (length,
width and height, or east-west, north-south and up-down) and one of time (past-future),
but superstring theory, for example, requires the universe to have ten dimensions.
DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules consist of two long intertwined polymers of nucleotides,
with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds, structured as the
familiar double helix. DNA is responsible for the long-term storage of genetic information, and
specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. It is organized into structures called
chromosomes, and contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all
known living organisms and some viruses. The first accurate model of the structure of DNA was
formulated by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. The genetic information from DNA is
transmitted into the nucleus of cells by molecules of RNA, which controls certain chemical processes
in the cell. Both DNA and RNA are considered essential building blocks of life.
E
Electric
Charge:
A property of microscopic particles, which may be either positive (e.g. protons) or negative
(e.g.electrons). Particles with the same charge repel each other, and particles with opposite charges
attract each other. The field of force that surrounds an electric charge is called an electric field, and a
river of charged particles flowing through a conductor is called an electric current.
Electric
Field:
The field of force that surrounds an electric charge (in the same way as a magnetic field is the field of
force that surrounds a magnet). Together, the electric and magnetic fields make up the
electromagnetic field which underlies light and other electromagnetic waves, and changes in either
field will induce changes in the other, as shown in the equations of James Clerk Maxwell.
Electromagnetic
Force
(or
Electromagnetism):
The force that an electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles. It is one of the
fourfundamental forces of physics (along with the gravitational force and the strong and weak
nuclear forces), and the one responsible for most of the forces we experience in our daily lives. The
electromagnetic forces acting between the electrically charged protons and electrons inside atomsand
between atoms are essentially responsible for gluing together all ordinary matter.
Although hugely stronger (1042 times) than the force of gravity, it is a less dominant force on larger
scales because the attractive and repulsive interactions tend to cancel each other out. Like gravity, the
electromagnetic force is subject to an inverse-square law, and its strength is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the particles. The force is mediated or operated by the exchange
of photons between the particles. The ‘electrostatic force’ is one aspect of the electromagnetic force,
which arises when two charged particles are static (i.e. not in motion).
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Electromagnetic Radiation (or Electromagnetic Waves):
A wave that travels though space at the speed of light, consisting of an electrical field that
periodically grows and dies, alternating with a magnetic field that periodically dies and grows.
Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum, which may be imparted when it interacts
with matter.
In order of increasing frequency, the electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves,
terahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays and gamma rays.
Electron:
A negatively-charged sub-atomic particle. It is an indivisible,elementary particle, and is usually to
be found orbiting thenucleus of an atom. Electrons in an atom (which exist in the same quantity as
the number of protons in the nucleus of the particular atom, so that the overall electric charge is zero)
are constrained to occupy certain discrete orbital positions or “shells” around the nucleus.
Interactions between the electrons of different atoms play an essential role in chemical bonding and
phenomena such as electricity, magnetism and thermal conductivity. The discovery of electrons is
credited to the British physicist J. J. Thomson in 1897.
Element:
A substance that cannot be reduced any further by chemical means. It is a pure chemical substance
composed of atomswith the same atomic number (i.e. the same number of protonsin its nucleus).
There are 92 naturally occurring elements on Earth, and all chemical matter consists of these
elements (although a further 25 have been discovered as products of artificial nuclear reactions).
Elements with atomic numbers 83 or higher are inherently unstable, and undergo radioactive decay.
The list of elements is usually shown in the form of a Periodic Table, in order of their atomic number
(see box at right, or click ther source link for a more detailed interactive Periodic Table).
Elementary Particle:
A particle with no substructure (i.e. not made up of smaller particles) and which is therefore one
of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are
made.Quarks, electons, neutrinos, photons, muons and gluons (along with their respective
antiparticles) are all elementary particles;protons and neutrons (which are made up of quarks) are not.
Energy:
Sometimes defined as the ability to do work or to cause change, energy is notoriously difficult to
define. In accordance with the Law of Conservation of Energy, energy can never be created or
destroyed but it can be changed into different forms, including kinetic, potential,
thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic and electromagnetic. The standard scientific unit of energy
is the Joule.
Entanglement:
The phenomenon in quantum theory whereby particles that interact with each other become
permanently dependent on each other’s quantum states and properties, to the extent that they lose
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their individuality and in many ways behave as a single entity. At some level, entangled particles
appear to “know” each other’s states and properties.
Entropy:
A measure of the disorder of a system and of its constituent molecules. More specifically, in
thermodynamics it is a measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work. The Second
Law of Thermodynamics embodies the idea that entropy can never decrease, but rather will tend to
increase over time, approaching a maximum value as it reaches thermal equilibrium. A classic
example of increasing entropy is ice melting in water until both reach a common temperature.
Event Horizon:
A one-way boundary in space-time surrounding a black hole. Any matter or light that falls through
the event horizon of ablack hole can never leave, and any event inside the event horizon cannot affect
an outside observer.
Exogenesis:
The hypothesis that life on Earth was transferred from elsewhere in the universe. A related but more
limited concept is that of panspermia, the idea that "seeds" of life exist already all over the universe,
and that life on Earth may have originated through these "seeds".
Exotic
Particle:
A kind of theoretical particle said to exist by some theories of modern physics, whose alleged
properties are extremely unusual. Examples include tachyons (particles that always travels faster than
the speed of light), WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles which do not interact
withelectromagnetism or the strong nuclear force), axions (particles with no electric charge, very
smallmass and very low interaction with the strong and weak forces) and neutrinos (particles that
travel close to the speed of light, lack an electric charge and are able to pass through
ordinary matteralmost undisturbed).
Expanding Universe:
A universe which is constantly growing in size and in which the constituent parts (galaxies,
clusters, etc) are flying ever further away from each other. Although contrary to the
static universewhich had been assumed throughout most of history, an expanding universe was
confirmed by Edwin Hubble’s 1929 observations of the redshifts of distant Cepheid variable stars,
and is consistent with most solutions to Albert Einstein’s general relativity field equations. It also
suggests that, in the distant past, the universe was much smaller and ultimately had its beginning in
aBig Bang type event.
F
Fundamental
(or
Elementary)
Forces:
There are four basic forces of physics that are believed to underlie all phenomena in the universe.
Listed in order of strength they are: the strong nuclear force, the electromagnetic force, the weak
nuclear force and the gravitational force (or gravity). It is thought likely that, in extremely
high energyconditions such as occurred near the beginning of the Big Bang, the four fundamental
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forces of nature are actually unified in a single theoretical framework (known as the Grand Unified
Theory).
According to quantum field theory, the forces between particles are mediated by other particles, and
the fundamental forces can be described by the exchange of virtual force-carrying particles:
the strong nuclear force mediated by gluons; the electromagnetic force by photons; the weak nuclear
force by W and Z bosons; and gravity by hypothetical gravitons.
G
Galaxy:
One of the basic building block of the universe, a galaxy is a massive system of stars, stellar
remnants, gas, dust, and possibly a hypothetical substance known as dark matter, bound together
by gravity. Galaxies may be anywhere from 1 to 100,000 light years across and are typically
separated by millions of light years of intergalactic space. They are grouped into clusters, which in
turn can form larger groups called superclusters and sheets or filaments. There are many different
kinds of galaxy including spiral (like our own Milky Way galaxy), elliptical, ring, dwarf, lenticular
and irregular. There are estimated to be over a hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe.
Gamma Ray:
A form of electromagnetic radiation produced by some kinds ofradioactive decay. Gamma rays
have the highest frequency andenergy and the shortest wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum,
and penetrate matter more easily that either alpha particles or beta particles.
Gamma
Ray
Burst:
A narrow beam of intense electromagnetic radiation released during a supernova event, as a rapidly
rotating, high-mass star collapses to form a black hole. They are the brightest events known to occur
in the universe, and can last from milliseconds to several minutes (typically a few seconds). The
initial burst is usually followed by a longer-lived 'afterglow' emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray,
ultraviolet, optical, infrared and radio).
Gas:
A state of matter consisting of a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc)
without a definite shape or volume, and that are in more or less random motion. A gas tends to have
relatively low density and viscosity compared to the solid and liquid states of matter, expands and
contracts greatly with changes in temperature or pressure (“compressible”), and diffuses readily,
spreading and homogeneously distributing itself throughout any container.
General Theory of Relativity:
Sometimes known as the Theory of General Relativity, this wasAlbert Einstein’s refinement
(published in 1916) of his earlierSpecial Theory of Relativity and Sir Isaac Newton’s much
earlierLaw of Universal Gravitation. The theory holds that acceleration and gravity are
indistinguishable - the Principle of Equivalence - and describes gravity as a property of the geometry
(more specifically a warpage) of space-time. Among other things, the theory predicts the existence
of black holes, an expanding universe, time dilation, length contraction, gravitational light bending
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and the curvature of space-time. Although classical physics can be considered a good approximation
for everyday purposes, the predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical
physics. They have become generally accepted in modern physics, however, and have been
confirmed by all observations and experiments to date.
Geodesic:
The shortest path between two points in curved space. It originally meant the shortest route
between two points on the Earth's surface (namely a segment of a great circle) but, since its
application in general relativity, it has come to mean the generalization of the notion of a straight line
as applied to all curved spaces. In non-curved three-dimensional space, the geodesic is a straight line.
In general relativity, a free falling body (on which only gravitational forces are acting) follows a
geodesic in curved four-dimensional space-time.
Grand
Unified
Theory
(or
Unified
Field
Theory):
Also known as Grand Unification or GUT, this refers to any of several unified field theories that
predict that at extremely high energies (such as occurred just after the Big Bang),
the electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces are all fused into a single unified field.
Thus far, physicists have only been able to merge electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force into
the “electroweak force”. Beyond Grand Unification, there is also speculation that it may be possible
to merge gravity with the other three gauge symmetries into a “theory of everything”.
Gravity (or Gravitational Force):
The force of attraction that exists between any two masses, whether they be stars, microscopic
particles or any other bodies with mass. It is by far the weakest of the fourfundamental forces (the
others being the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force), and yet,
because it is a consistent force operating on all bodies withmass, it is instrumental in the formation
of galaxies, stars, planets and black holes. It was approximately described by Sir Isaac Newton’s Law
of Universal Gravitation in 1687, and more accurately described by Albert Einstein’s General Theory
of Relativity in 1916.
H
Half-Life:
A measure of the speed of radioactive decay of unstable, radioactive atoms. It is the time taken for
half of the nuclei in a radioactive sample to disintegrate or decay. Half-lives can vary from a splitsecond to billions of years depending on the substance.
Hawking Radiation:
Random and featureless sub-atomic particles and thermal radiation predicted to be emitted
by black holes due to quantum effects. Over long periods of time, as a black hole loses
morematter through radiation than it gains through other means, it is therefore expected to dissipate,
shrink and ultimately vanish.
Horizon:
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The horizon of the universe is much like the horizon on Earth: it is the furthest that can be seen
from a particular position. Because light has a finite speed and the universe has a finite age, we can
only see objects whose light has had time to reach us since the Big Bang, so that the
observable universe can be thought of as a bubble centred on the Earth.
Hubble’s
Law:
Formulated by Edwin Hubble in 1929, the law states that the redshift in light coming from
distantgalaxies is proportional to their distance, so that every galaxy appears to be rushing away from
us (or from any other point in the universe) with a speed that is directly proportionate to its distance
from us. It is considered the first observational basis for an expanding universe (or the metric
expansion of space), and the most often cited evidence in support of the Big Bang theory, and
arguably one of the most important cosmological discoveries ever made.
Hydrostatic Equilibrium:
The state in which the force of gravitation working to crush astar is exactly balanced by the
thermal pressure of its hot gaspushing outwards. It is the reason that stars in general do not implode
or explode, and it also explains why the Earth's atmosphere does not collapse to a very thin layer on
the ground.
I
Inertia:
The natural tendency (as defined in Sir Isaac Newton’s First Law of Motion of 1687) of objects to
resist changes in their state of motion. Therefore, a body at rest tends to stay at rest and, once set in
motion, a body tends to stay moving at a constant speed in a straight line (or along a geodesic in
curved space) unless acted on by an outside force. An example of an inertial force is centrifugal
force, which in reality is just due to a body trying to continue in a straight line while constrained to
move along a curved path.
Inertial
Frame
(or
Inertial
System):
A reference frame in which the observers are not subject to any accelerating force. An inertial frame
is a frame of reference in which a body remains at rest or moves with constant linear velocity unless
acted upon by outside forces (as stipulated by Sir Isaac Newton’s First Law of Motion, Force
= MassCH Acceleration). Any frame of reference that moves with constant velocity relative to an
inertial system is itself an inertial system.
Interference:
The ability of two waves passing through each other to mingle, reinforcing each other where crests
coincide and cancelling each other out where crests and troughs coincide, similar to the way ripples
in water interfere with each other. This results, for example, in an interference pattern of light and
dark stripes on a screen illuminated by light from two sources.
Ion:
An atom or molecule that has been stripped of one or more of its orbiting electrons, thus giving it a
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net positive electric charge. Technically, an atom which gains an electron (thus giving it a net
negativeelectric charge) is also a type of ion, known as an anion.
Isotope:
A possible form of an element, distinguishable from other isotopes of the same element by its
differingmass, which is caused by a different number of neutrons in the nucleus (the number
of protons, which gives the atomic number of the element, must be the same). Around 75% of
isotopes are stable, while some are unstable or radioactive, and will decay over time into
other elements.
L
Law of Conservation of Energy:
Also known as the First Law of Thermodynamics, this is the principle that energy can never be
created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another (e.g. the chemical energy of gasoline
can be converted into the energy of motion of a car). The total amount of energy in an isolated
system (or in the universe as a whole) therefore remains constant.
Law of Universal Gravitation:
Published by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, and sometimes also known as the Universal Law of
Gravity, this was the first formulation of the idea that all bodies with mass pull on each other across
space. Newton observed that the force of gravitybetween two objects is proportional to the product of
the twomasses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Although the
theory has since been superseded by Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, it predicts the
movements of the Sun, the Moon and the planets to a high degree of accuracy and it continues to be
used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity for everyday applications (relativity is
only required when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with the gravitation of very
massive objects).
Length Contraction:
The phenomenon, predicted by Albert Einstein’s Special andGeneral Theories of Relativity,
whereby, from the relative context of one observer's frame of reference, space or length appears to
decrease as the relative velocities increase.
Life:
A difficult and contentious phenomenon to define, life is usually considered to be a characteristic of
organisms that exhibit certain biological processes (such as chemical reactions or other events that
results in a transformation), and that are capable of growth through metabolism and are capable of
reproduction. The ability to ingest food and excrete waste are also sometimes considered
requirements of life (e.g. bacteria are usually considered to be alive, whereas simpler viruses, which
do not feed or excrete, are not).
The two distinguishing features of living systems are sometimes considered to be complexity and
organization (negative entropy). Some organisms can communicate, and many can adapt to their
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environment through internally generated changes, although these are not universally considered
prerequisites for life.
Light:
Technically, this refers to electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye,
although in the broader field of physics, it is sometimes used to refer to electromagnetic radiation of
all wavelengths, whether visible or not. It exhibits “wave-particle duality” in that it can behave as
both waves and particles (photons). Light travels at a constant speed of about 300,000 kilometres per
second in a vacuum.
Light
Year:
A convenient unit for measuring the large distances in the universe. It is the distance that light travels
in one year which, given that light travels at 300,000 kilometres per second, works out to about
9,460,000,000 kilometres (9.46 trillion kilometres).
M
Magnetic
Field:
The field of force that surrounds a magnet (in the same way as an electric field is the field of force
that surrounds an electric charge). Together, the magnetic and electric fields make up the
electromagnetic field which underlies light and other electromagnetic waves, and changes in either
field will induce changes in the other, as indicated by James Clerk Maxwell’s Equations of
Electromagnetism.
Magnetic
Monopole:
A hypothetical particle that is a magnet with only one pole, and which therefore has a net magnetic
charge. Although the existence of monopoles is indicated by both classical theory and quantum
theory (and predicted by recent string theories and grand unified theories), there is still no
observational evidence for their physical existence.
Mass:
A measure of the amount of matter in a body. It can also be seen as a measure of a body’s inertia or
resistence to change in motion, or the degree of acceleration a body acquires when subject to a force
(bodies with greater mass are accelerated less by the same force and have greater inertia). Mass is
often confused with weight, which is the strength of the gravitational pull on the object (and therefore
how heavy it is in a particular gravitational situation), although, in everyday situations, the weight of
an object is proportional to its mass.
Mass-Energy
Equivalence:
The concept that any mass has an associated energy, and that, conversly, any energy has an
associated mass. In Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, this relationship is expressed in the
famous mass-energy equivalence formula, E = mc2, where E = total energy, m = mass and c =
thespeed of light in a vacuum. Given that c is a very large number, it becomes apparent that mass is
in fact a very concentrated form of energy.
Matter:
Anything that has both mass and volume (i.e. takes up space). Matter is what atoms and moleculesare
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made of, and it exists in four states or phases: solid, liquid, gas and plasma (although other phases,
such as Bose-Einstein condensates, also exist).
Molecule:
A collection of atoms glued together by electromagnetic forces. A more formal definition might
be: a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two atoms, in a definite arrangement,
held together by very strong chemical bonds. A molecule may consist of atoms of the same
chemical element(e.g. oxygen: O2) or of different elements (e.g. water: H2O). Organic molecules are
those which include carbon, and the others are called inorganic.
Momentum:
A measure of how much effort is required to stop a body, defined as the body’s mass multiplied by
its velocity. Thus, a large heavy body (e.g. a train) going relatively slowly may have more
momentum than a smaller body going very fast (e.g. a racing car). The Law of Conservation of
Momentum rules that the total momentum of an isolated system (one in which no net external force
acts on the system) does not change.
Multiverse (Parallel Universes):
A hypothetical set of multiple possible universes (including our own) which exist in parallel with
each other. Our universe would then be just one of an enormous number of separate and
distinct parallel universes, the vast majority of which would be dead and uninteresting, not having a
set of physical laws which would allow the emergence of stars, planets and life.
N
Neutrino:
A sub-atomic elementary particle with no electrical charge and very small mass that travels very
close to the speed of light. They are created as a result of certain types of radioactive decay or nuclear
reaction, such as the decay of a free neutron(i.e. one outside of a nucleus) into a proton and electron.
Being electrically neutral and unaffected by the strong nuclear force or the electromagnetic force,
neutrinos are able to pass through ordinary matter almost undisturbed and are therefore extremely
difficult to detect, although when created in huge numbers they are capable of blowing a star apart in
a supernova.
Neutron:
One of the two main building blocks (along with the proton) of the nucleus at the centre of
an atom. Neutrons have essentially the same mass as a proton (very slightly larger) but no electric
charge, and are made up of one “up” quark and two “down”quarks. The number of neutrons in
an atom determines theisotope of an element. Outside of a nucleus, they are unstable and disintegrate
within about ten minutes.
Neutron
Star:
A star that has shrunk under its own gravity during a supernova event, so that most of its material has
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been compressed into neutrons only (the protons and electrons have been crushed together until they
merge, leaving only neutrons). Neutron stars are very hot, quite small (typically 20 to 30 kilometres
in diameter), extremely dense, have a very high surface gravity and rotate very fast. A pulsar is a kind
of highly-magnetized rapidly-rotating neutron star.
Newton’s
Laws
of
Motion:
The three physical laws, published by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, that form the basis for classical
mechanics: 1) a body persists its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force; 2) force equals mass times acceleration; and 3) to every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
Nonlocality:
The rather spooky ability of objects in quantum theory to apparently instantaneously know about
each other’s quantum state, even when separated by large distances, in apparent contravention of the
principle of locality (the idea that distant objects cannot have direct influence on one another, and
that an object is influenced directly only by its immediate surroundings).
Nuclear
Fission:
A nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts, often producing
freeneutrons, lighter nuclei and photons (in the form of gamma rays). The process releases large
amounts of energy, both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the resulting
fragments.
Nuclear Fusion:
The welding together of two light nuclei to make a heaviernucleus, resulting in the liberation of
nuclear energy. An example of this kind of nuclear reaction is the binding together of
hydrogen nuclei in the core of the Sun to make helium. In larger, hotter stars, helium itself may fuse
to produce heavierelements, a process which continues up the periodic table ofelements as far as iron.
The fusion of ultra-stable iron nucleiactually absorbs energy rather than releasing it, and so iron does
not easily fuse to create heavierelements.
Nucleosynthesis:
The process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existingprotons and neutrons by a process
of nuclear fusion. The primordial nucleons (hydrogen and helium) themselves were formed from
the quark-gluon plasma in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, as it cooled to below ten million
degrees, but nucleosynthesis of the heavier elements (including all carbon, oxygen, etc) occurs
primarily in the nuclear fusionprocess within stars and supernovas.
Nucleus:
The tight cluster of nucleons (positively-charged protons and zero-charged neutrons, or just a
singleproton in the case of hydrogen) at the centre of an atom, containing more than 99.9% of
the atom’smass. The nucleus of a typical atom is about 100,000 smaller than the total size of
the atom(depending on the individual atom).
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Oscillating
Universe:
A cosmological model, in which the universe undergoes a potentially endless series of oscillations,
each beginning with a Big Bang and ending with a Big Crunch. After the Big Bang,
the universeexpands for a while before the gravitational attraction of matter causes it to collapse back
and undergo a “bounce”.
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Panspermia:
The hypothesis that "seeds" of life exist already all over theuniverse, and that life on Earth may
have originated through these "seeds", driven by a steady influx of cells or viruses arriving from
space via comets. It is a more limited form of the related hypothesis of exogenesis, which also
proposes that lifeon Earth was transferred from elsewhere in the universe, but makes no prediction
about how widespread it may be.
Pauli
Exclusion
Principle:
The prohibition on two identical fermions from sharing the same quantum state simultaneously.
Among other implications it stops electrons (which are a kind of fermion) from piling on top of each
other, thereby explaining the existence of different types of atoms and the whole variety of
the universearound us.
Photoelectric Effect:
The phenomenon in which, when a metallic surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above
a certain threshold frequency (typically visible light and x-rays), the light is absorbed
andelectrons are emitted. The discovery of the effect is usually attributed to Heinrich Hertz in 1887,
and study of it (particularly by Albert Einstein) led to important steps in understanding
thequantum nature of light and electrons and in formulating the concept of wave-particle duality.
Photon:
A particle (or quantum) of light or other electromagnetic radiation, which has no intrinsic mass and
can therefore travel at the speed of light. It is an elementary particle and the basic unit of light, and
effectively carries the effects of the electromagnetic force. The modern concept of the photon as
exhibiting both wave and particle properties was developed gradually by Albert Einstein and others.
Planck
Constant:
The proportionality constant (h) which provides the relation between the energy (E) of a photon and
the frequency (v) of its associated electromagnetic wave in the so-called Planck Relation E = hv. It is
essentially used to describe the sizes of individual quanta in quantum mechanics. Its value depends
on the units used for energy and frequency, but it is a very small number (with energy measured in
Joules, it is of the order of 6.626 CH 10-34 J·s).
Planck
Energy:
The super-high energy (approximately 1.22 CH 1019 GeV) at which gravity becomes comparable in
strength to the other fundamental forces, and at which the quantum effects of gravity become
important.
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Planck
Length:
The fantastically tiny length scale (approximately 1.6 CH 10-35 metres) at which gravity becomes
comparable in strength to the other fundamental forces. It is the scale at which classical ideas
aboutgravity and space-time cease to be valid, and quantum effects dominate.
Planck
Temperature:
The temperature of the universe at 1 Planck Time after the Big Bang, approximately equal to 1.4 CH
1032°C.
Planck
Time:
The time it would take a photon travelling at the speed of light to cross a distance equal to the Planck
Length. This is the “quantum of time”, the smallest measurement of time that has any meaning, and
is approximately equal to 10-43 seconds.
Planck
Units:
“Natural units” of measurement (i.e. designed so that certain fundamental physical constants are
normalized to 1), named after the German physicist Max Planck who first proposed them in 1899.
They were an attempt to eliminate all arbitrariness from the system of units, and to help simplify
many complex equations in modern physics. Among the most important are the Planck Energy,
the Planck Length, the Planck Time and the Planck Temperature.
Plasma:
A partially ionized gas of ions and electrons, in which a certain proportion of the electrons are free
rather than being bound to an atom or molecule. It has properties quite unlike those of solids, liquids
or gases and is sometimes considered to be a distinct fourth state of matter. An example of plasma
present at the Earth's surface is lightning.
Positron:
The antiparticle or antimatter counterpart of the electron. The positron, then, is an elementary
particlewith a positive electric charge, and the same mass and spin as an electron. The existence of
positrons was first postulated in 1928 by Paul Dirac, and definitively discovered by Carl Anderson in
1932.
Primeval
(or
Primordial)
Soup:
The theory of the origin of life on Earth first put forward by Alexander Oparin, whereby a “soup” of
organic molecules could be created in a “reducing” oxygen-less atmosphere through the action of
sunlight, creating the necessary building blocks for the evolution of life.
Principle
of
Equivalence:
The idea that no experiment can distinguish the acceleration due to gravity from the inertial
acceleration due to a change of velocity (or acceleration).
Principle of Relativity:
The idea, first expressed by Galileo Galilei in 1632 and also known as the principle of invariance,
that the fundamental laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames and that, purely by observing
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the outcome of mechanical experiments, one cannot distinguish a state of rest from a state of constant
velocity. Thus, all uniform motion is relative, and there is no absolute and well-defined state of rest.
Probability
Wave
(or
Wave
Function):
A description of the probability that a particle in a particular state will be measured to have a given
position and momentum. Thus, a particle (an electron, photon or any other kind of particle), when not
being measured or located, takes the form of a field or wave of probable locations, some being more
probable or likely than others.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:
Prokaryotes are primitive organisms that lack a cell nucleus or any other membrane-bound
organelles. Most prokaryotes are single-celled (although some have multicellular stages in their lifecycles), and they are divided into two main domains, bacteria and archaea.
Eukaryotes, on the other hand, are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and are organized into
complex structures enclosed within membranes. Most living organisms (including all animals, plants,
fungi and protists) are eukaryotes.
Proton:
One of the two main building blocks (along with the neutron) of the nucleus at the centre of
an atom. Protons carry a positiveelectrical charge, equal and opposite to that of electrons, and are
made up of two “up” quarks and one “down” quark. The number of protons in
an atom’s nucleus determines its atomic number and thus which chemical element it represents.
Pulsar:
A highly-magnetized rapidly-rotating neutron star that sweeps regular pulses of
intense electromagnetic radiation (radio waves) around space like a lighthouse. The intervals between
pulses are very regular, ranging from 1.4 milliseconds to 8.5 seconds depending on the rotation
period of the star. A pulsar generally has a mass similar to our own Sun, but a diameter of only
around 10 kilometres.
Q
Quantum:
The smallest chunk into which something can be divided in physics. Quantized phenomena are
restricted to discrete values rather than to a continuous set of values. Some quanta take the form
ofelementary particles, such as photons which are the quanta of the electromagnetic field. Quanta are
measured on the tiny Planck scale of the order of around 10-35 metres.
Quantum
Electrodynamics:
Sometimes shortened to QED, it is essentially the theory of how light interacts with matter. More
specifically, it deals with the interactions between electrons, positrons (antielectrons) and photons. It
explains almost everything about the everyday world, from why the ground is solid to how a laser
works to the chemistry of metabolism to the operation of computers.
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Quantum
Gravity
(or
Quantum
Theory
of
Gravity):
A so-called “theory of everything” which combines the General Theory of Relativity (the theory of
the very large, which describes one of the fundamental forces of nature, gravity) with quantum
theory (the theory of the very small, which describes the other three fundamental
forces, electromagnetism, theweak nuclear force and the strong nuclear force) into a unified theory.
However, even the most promising candidates, like superstring theory and loop quantum gravity, still
need to overcome major formal and conceptual problems, and this is still very much a work in
progress.
Quantum
State:
The set of characteristics describing the condition a quantum mechanical system is in. It can be
described by a wave function or a complete set of quantum numbers (energy, angular
momentum,spin, etc), although, when observed, the system is forced into a specific stationary
"eigenstate". If a particle within a quantum system (such as an electron within an atom) moves from
one quantum state to another, it does so instantaneously and in discontinuous steps (known as
quantum leaps or jumps) without ever being in a state in between.
Quantum
Theory
(or
Quantum
Physics
or
Quantum
Mechanics):
The physical theory of objects isolated from their surroundings. Because it is very difficult to isolate
large objects, quantum theory (also known as quantum mechanics or quantum physics) is essentially
a theory of the microscopic world of atoms and their constituents. Among its main principles are the
dual wave-like and particle-like behaviour of matter and radiation (wave-particle duality), and the
prediction of probabilities in situations where classical physics predicts certainties. Classical
physicsprovides a good approximation to quantum physics for everyday purposes, typically in
circumstances with large numbers of particles.
Quantum Tunnelling:
The quantum mechanical effect in which particles have a finite probability of crossing
an energybarrier, or transitioning through an energy state normally forbidden to them by classical
physics, due to the wave-like aspect of particles. Theprobability wave of a particle represents the
probability of finding the particle in a certain location, and there is a finite probability that the
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