Article
Students Improve in
Reading Comprehension
by Learning How to Teach
Reading Strategies. An
Evidence-based Approach
for Teacher Education
Helvi Koch
University of Potsdam, Germany
Nadine Spo
¨ rer
University of Potsdam, Germany
Abstract
In this intervention study, we investigated how we could teach university students who were majoring
in education to teach reading strategies. The goal of the study was to analyze whether and to what
extent students would benefit from the intervention with respect to their own learning. Did their own
reading skills improve after they attended the intervention? The sample consisted of
n
¼
61students
who were assigned to one of two conditions: (a) an adaption of reciprocal teaching; and (b) a control
group that was not taught how to teach reading strategies. The evidence-based teaching method used
in the intervention condition consisted of three elements: modeling, scaffolding, and repeated practice.
Training success was assessed in a pre-posttest control group design with standardized reading com-
prehension and reading speed tests. To compare the development of the students in the two condi-
tions, repeated measures ANOVAs were used. At posttest, intervention students outperformed
control students in reading comprehension as well as in reading speed.
Keywords
Reading strategies, reciprocal teaching, teacher education
Introduction
Reading skills are necessary for a person to be able to learn from texts and are essential for
lifelong learning. An effective way to understand texts thoroughly is to use reading strategies
Corresponding author:
Helvi Koch, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24–25, Potsdam, 14476 Germany.
Email: helvi.koch@uni-potsdam.de
Psychology Learning & Teaching
2017, Vol. 16(2) 197–211
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The Author(s) 2017
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DOI: 10.1177/1475725717700525
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(McNamara, 2009). Students do not usually learn reading strategies incidentally (Artelt &
Do¨rfler, 2010); therefore, they must be taught directly. Hence, teachers should focus on
teaching reading strategies (Pressley, Graham, & Harris, 2006). In the last two decades,
research on fostering reading comprehension has yielded several effective reading strategy
programs. Currently, however, scientifically based reading instruction programs are still not
implemented very often in the classroom by teachers (Koch & Spo¨rer, 2016).
In the present intervention study, we had two goals. On the one hand, we wanted to
familiarize students majoring in education with an evidence-based teaching program for
fostering the reading skills of primary school students. In so doing, the goal was to prepare
today’s university students to use the program in their future regular teaching. On the other
hand, we wanted to investigate whether participants would benefit from the intervention in
terms of improving their own reading skills. Therefore, the intervention we implemented was
designed to determine
how to apply
and
how to teach
reading strategies.
Teaching Reading Strategies in Regular Primary School Lessons
Kline, Deshler, and Schumaker (1992) pointed out that teachers were more willing to imple-
ment a reading strategy program based on theories from educational psychology when they
had experienced its effectiveness. Therefore, there is a need to provide teachers with infor-
mation on psychological research, for example, regarding the effectiveness of reading stra-
tegies and the effective teaching of them (Borko & Putnam, 1996).
This need is evident as educational studies on how to teach reading in a regular classroom
setting have indicated that teachers do not spend enough time teaching reading strategies
(Ness, 2008). Moreover, Sailors (2009) determined that teachers often have only limited
knowledge about how to teach reading strategies and tend to draw from what they learned
in their own school experiences when comprehending texts. Strategies such as summarizing
or asking questions are commonly used by teachers to assess reading comprehension, but
they are rarely taught how to improve it (Hollenbeck & Kalchman, 2013). Indeed, on an
overall basis, reading instruction in a regular classroom setting often fails to re
F
ect scien-
tifically based practices (Stanovich & Stanovich, 2003).
Scientifically based reading practices refer to specific programs that include the systematic
and stepwise instruction of selected reading strategies that are evidently effective (Fletcher &
Francis, 2004). Recent studies on effective reading instruction have pointed to the import-
ance of teachers’ didactical competence in analyzing and systematically developing students’
literacy skills (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2006; McCardle & Chhabra, 2004).
Incongruously, some study results have suggested that teachers are often not familiar with
the knowledge that is necessary to teach reading strategies or reading literacy (Moats &
Foorman, 2003; Rosenfield & Berninger, 2009). One reason for this is that teachers are often
unfamiliar with specific scientifically based programs (Podhajski, Mather, Nathan, &
Sammons, 2009).
Learning How to Teach Reading Strategies
Not only regular teachers, but aspiring teachers too, have a lack of reliable knowledge about
scientifically based programs (Mather, Bos, & Babur, 2001). One challenging issue in teacher
education is, therefore, that future teachers are not sufficiently prepared to teach reading
strategies (Anders, Hoffman, & Duffy, 2000; DeGraff, Schmidt, & Waddell, 2015) even
198
Psychology Learning & Teaching 16(2)
though elaborated knowledge of how to apply reading strategies is essential for them to
deliver high-quality reading instruction lessons (Snow, Griffin, & Burns, 2005). Researchers
agree that future teachers’ knowledge about scientifically based reading programs—and with
this, the ability to teach reading strategies effectively—is an essential presupposition for their
learners to become good readers (e.g., Al Otaiba, Lake, Greulich, Folsom, & Guidry, 2012;
Podhajski et al., 2009). Moreover, university students’ own positive experiences with an
evidence-based teaching program might initiate their openness and readiness to use it in
their own future classes (Dunn, Saville, Baker, & Marek, 2013). Guskey (2002) focused on
the development of regular teachers after they participated in a teacher training program.
He found that a teacher training program was more effective when the teachers had the
opportunity to try out a specific scientifically based program during the training. They were
also more willing to incorporate such a program into their classrooms when they had posi-
tive experiences with it.
In a recent study, Drechsel, Breuning, Thurn, and Basten (2014) instructed university
students in teaching fifth graders how to learn from texts. Within this study, the students
had the opportunity to teach reading strategies to fifth graders in individual lessons.
One result of this two-step intervention was that most of the students reported having sub-
jectively important learning experiences and practically relevant insights with ‘‘aha’’
moments regarding their professional development as a teacher. This study emphasized
the importance of individual (positive) experiences that students should have with an
approach before teaching it in regular classroom settings.
Furthermore, there are several findings that indicate that teachers’ habits, engagement,
and competence in reading are related to those of their students (see the so-called
‘‘Peter Effect,’’ in Applegate & Applegate, 2004; Binks-Cantrell, Washburn, Joshi, &
Hougen, 2012). The presumption is that only someone who has a specific ability (here,
reading-related skills) can teach this to others. This idea reflects study results indicating
that the specific competences of a teacher predict students’ learning outcomes (Brouwer &
Korthagen, 2005; Wayne & Youngs, 2003).
Regarding university students’ reading skills, Spinath, van Ophuysen, and Heise (2005)
found that students perform on a moderate level. However, their use of reading strategies is
generally rather unsystematic (Felipe & Barrios, 2014). To be a good teacher of reading, it is
helpful to have a good comprehension of texts, but it is also important to be familiar with
effective reading strategies (Carlisle, Kelcey, Rowan, & Phelps, 2011; Phelps, 2009).
Therefore, an essential goal of research in this area is to foster the reading skills of future
teachers (Joshi et al., 2009) and to teach them about scientifically based reading instruction.
In addition, courses on the teaching of reading should be required for all teachers because
comprehending texts is a cross-curricular competence that students need for learning in all
school subjects (Drechsel & Artelt, 2007; Walsh, Glaser, & Wilcox, 2006).
One scientifically based program for promoting the reading skills of students is reciprocal
teaching (RT) (see Palincsar & Brown, 1984). The term RT refers to the application of
reading strategies while reading a text together with peers. In this peer group, students
interact with each other and alternate in leading the group. More specifically, students
learn how to use the four reading strategies of clarifying, summarizing, questioning, and
predicting. In their small group, they read texts together and construct comprehension col-
laboratively. According to this method, students take over responsibility by leading group
work and giving feedback on the group members’ application of strategy. Different research
groups have demonstrated that this kind of instruction results in better reading
Koch and Spo¨rer
199
comprehension outcomes (Rosenshine & Meister, 1994; see also Hattie, 2009). More recent
studies indicated that RT is effective not only for primary school students (Hacker & Tenent,
2002; Koch & Spo¨rer, 2016; Schu¨nemann, Spo¨rer, & Brunstein, 2013), but also for univer-
sity students who are learning English as a foreign language (EFL) (see Freihat &
Al-Makhzoomi, 2012).
So far, researchers have focused on the effects RT could have on reading strategy use and
reading comprehension (Hattie, 2009; Spo¨rer, Brunstein, & Kieschke, 2009). In RT, group
interactions are organized by the different roles group members take over, and structured by
help sheets. We assume that the structured and organized reading of the students benefits
their conditional and procedural strategic knowledge. In accordance with prior research on
reading strategies (Dole, Nokes, and Drits 2009), this conditional and procedural knowledge
may enable students to use their strategic competence to construct the meaning of a text and,
moreover, to read texts more fluently through focusing on the most relevant elements of a
sentence as well as on linguistic elements indicating the relations of sentences. However,
more research is needed for investigating these potentially multifaceted effects of RT.
Because reading instruction research should be closely connected to teacher education
(Pressley & Allington, 1999), it is useful to use the RT approach to teach university students
about scientifically based reading instruction (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, &
Willingham, 2013; Hattie, 2009). Whether RT can effectively foster the reading skills of
university students majoring in education is an open question.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
In this intervention study, we investigated how to teach university students to teach reading
strategies. Four specific reading strategies are part of the RT approach, which is an effective
program for supporting primary school students in becoming strategic readers (Spo¨rer,
Koch, Schu¨nemann, & Vo¨llinger, 2016). In learning to teach this program, the university
students should use the reading strategies more effectively on study texts to gain a deeper
understanding of the reading material and, consequently, to enhance their reading skills.
Since the present intervention program was being implemented for the first time, the main
goal of the study was to analyze the effectiveness of the intervention in terms of reading
comprehension and reading speed. The mechanism of action follows the assumption that
only someone who is good at something can teach it appropriately (‘‘Peter Effect,’’ see
Applegate & Applegate, 2004; Binks-Cantrell et al., 2012). Therefore, teachers who teach
students how to use reading strategies to become better readers should be strategic, fluent,
and comprehending readers themselves. The intended outcome of our study was the
enhancement of reading skills, namely, reading comprehension and reading speed.
The innovative aspect of the RT intervention in the context of our study was that we used
the RT approach to teach university students how to apply this method in regular school
settings. After we told the students about our recent RT research program in regular class-
room contexts, and after we informed them about the specific content of RT, they practiced
RT in small groups. In this way, the students learned how to apply the technique. Because
RT is an approach that is used to foster a person’s reading skills, we used this as the outcome
variable to test whether our intervention was effective.
Consequently, our research question was: Will students benefit directly from the RT
intervention with respect to their own learning, and will their reading skills improve after
attending the intervention?
200
Psychology Learning & Teaching 16(2)
In order to answer our research question we posed two hypotheses: H1: Students who took
part in a university course intervention where they learned how to apply the RT approach will
show better results in
reading comprehension
than students who took part in a university course
with similar content but who were not given the opportunity to apply RT; H2: Students who
took part in a university course intervention where they learned how to apply the RT
approach will show better results in
reading speed
than students who took part in a university
course with similar content but who were not given the opportunity to apply RT.
Method
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