Part II
Water-salts equilibria
and types of salts
As introduced, the general trend for inorganic salts is
to precipitate when reaching supercritical conditions for
water. However, phase behavior with water varies a lot
depending on the nature of the salt. Lots of works have
been done to try to classify salts regarding to their behav-
ior in supercritical water. First, SCOTT & VAN KONY-
NENBURG [36] classied 6 types of binary uid phase
diagrams, using the Van Der Waals equation of state.
Dierences between the diagrams are characterized by
the immiscibility or miscibility domains and the congu-
ration of the critical lines between the two critical points
of the pure compounds. A seventh type has then been
discovered [37] with the Lennard-Jones equation of state.
Following this work, VALYASHKO [3840] used some of
these diagrams which enable the description of solid-uid
interactions, such as salt-water systems. However, due
to the large dierence in critical temperature between
inorganic salts and water (in comparison with two u-
ids for example), unusual phase equilibrium can occur
when reaching the critical domain. In order to better
build these diagrams, some specic assumptions to the
water-salt systems have been added (taken from [38]):
1. The melting temperature of the pure nonvolatile
component (salt) is higher than the critical tem-
perature of the volatile component
2. No solid-phase transition (polymorphism, solid-
solution...) or azeotropy in liquid-gas equilibria is
considered
3. Liquid immiscibility is terminated by the critical
region at high pressures and cannot be represented
by more than two separated immiscibility regions
of dierent types
4. All geometric elements of phase diagrams, their re-
actions and shapes (but not the combinations of
these elements) can be illustrated by existing ex-
perimental examples.
Using a continuous topological transformation approach,
the results reveal two main behaviors for salts (type I
and type II) , which are split into many sub-diagrams.
Operating small changes on thermodynamical parame-
ters allow to process a continuous transformation from
one diagram to another[38, 41].
These thermodynamic binary phase diagrams nicely
classify most of the salts according to their behavior in
supercritical water. Following this classication, type I
salts present a continuous solubility curve at supercriti-
cal temperature which does not cross the critical curve,
whereas type II salts present an intersection between the
solubility curve and the critical curve, leading to two crit-
ical endpoints in this domain (c.f. Figure 5).
These two general diagrams can then be complicated
with immiscibility domains occurring in some cases.
MARSHALL [42] made a dierence between type I and
type II salts saying that the rst group generally has a
higher solubility in supercritical water than the others,
and classied most of inorganic salts according to this
criteria (c.f table I). In addition, VALYASHKO [43] clas-
sied them according to their melting temperatures (c.f.
table I). Type I salts have a melting temperature be-
tween 800°C and 1000°C whereas type II salts have their
melting temperature above 700-800°C. What is interest-
ing is that the two classications are not in opposition
with each other, but complementary. It is also impor-
tant to notice that according to this classication, for a
given cation (anion), the salts solubility in supercritical
water will increase with the size of the associated anion
(cation).
Table I: MARSHALL and VALYASHKO classications
for type I and type II salts.
As appearing in the dierent classications, sodium
chloride (NaCl) is a very good illustration of a type I
salt, with a high solubility in water, even at sub-critical
or supercritical conditions (compare to other salts), and
the appearance of gas-liquid like equilibrium. The bi-
nary diagram at high pressure and high temperature for
NaCl is well dened (c.f. Figure 6) and has been checked
with several experimental data [44]. The lower limit of
the diphasic zone has also been directly observed, but its
upper limit remains theoritically xed to a certain tem-
perature from which a unique supercritical phase remains
and salt precipitates.
A good example of a type II salt is sodium sulfate
(Na
2
SO
4
), which presents an intersection of the solu-
bility curve with the critical curve, leading to a simple
5
Figure 5: P-T-x diagrams for a type I salt (a) and a type II salt (b). For a type I salt, the binary critical curve is
continuous and distinct from the saturation curves, whereas for the type II the binary critical curve is interrupted by
the saturation curves, leading to critical end points P and Q. Abbreviations: A, volatile compound ; B, nonvolatile
compound ; TP, triple point ; CP, critical point ; E
V
, eutectic vapor coordinates ; E
L
, eutectic liquid coordinates ;
P, A-rich S-L-V critical end point ; Q, B-rich S-L-V critical end point (from [13]).
precipitation behavior at subcritical conditions, without
3-phase equilibrium (see Figure 6). Some recent experi-
ments have been performed on the subject, towards im-
provement of gasication processes [3032]. The set up
is a Modar like reactor, with a subcritical part at the
bottom and a supercritical zone on the top. The aim
of this set up is to study the dierent salt behavior, de-
pending on their type, by looking at their ability to be
recovered from the bottom part of the reactor. Experi-
ments were performed with binary mixtures of water-salt
systems, with type I or type II salts. The rst trend ob-
served is that type I salts (K
2
CO
3
, K
3
PO
4
, K
2
HPO
4
,
KH
2
PO
4
, NaNO
3
, KNO
3
and Ca(NO
3
)
2
) precipitate in
supercritical water and can be recovered as a brine so-
lution, whereas type II salts (Na
2
CO
3
, Na
2
SO
4
, K
2
SO
4
and Na
3
PO
4
) precipitate but directly stick to the reactor
walls and rapidly plug the process, disabling any recov-
ery as a brine. But even if the behavior follows the same
trend for a salt type, dierences still exist due to the sol-
ubility variations. This is seen in the nitrate compounds,
the solubility of NaNO
3
is higher than the one of KNO
3
,
itself higher than Ca(NO
3
)
2
(meaning Ca(NO
3
)
2
is easily
recovered than NaNO
3
because it precipitates more eas-
ily). As a similar result, KH
2
PO
4
is easily recovered in
comparison with KNO
3
. These results seem to be on the
opposite trend than the one predicted by MARSHALL
[42] and VALYASHKO [43] classications (solubility in-
creases, for a given anion, with the size of the cation and
vice versa).
In the end, this classication in types of salt cannot
give all the information regarding solubility at supercriti-
cal conditions but it can be used as a trend for the general
behavior.
Figure 6: Binary diagrams at 25 MPa for water-NaCl
(left) and water-Na
2
SO
4
(right). L=liquid phase;
V=vapor phase; S=solid phase (from [13])
6
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