renewable energy sectors is listed in
Table 1
. In many countries, the use
of renewable energy has been pursued competitively along with con-
ventional energy sources, thereby making a signi
fi
cant contribution to
the national generation of power
[33]
. For example, solar PV con-
tributes an estimated 7.9%, 7.6%, and 7.0% of the electricity demand in
Italy, Greece, and Germany, respectively
[34]
. Solar PV capacities have
grown at phenomenal rates, from ca. 3.7 in 2004
–
225 GW in 2015
[35]
.
In 2015, with a total of $161 bn investment and additional 59 GW (a
34% increase over 2014's total) on solar energy led to cumulative in-
stallations of total solar capacity 256 GW worldwide at the end of the
year
[36]
. However, with nearly 100 GW of installed capacity, Europe
is still the most solarized continent. In 2015, the solar capacity for
Europe increased by 8 GW, while the United Kingdom, Germany, and
France achieved an increase of only 5.3 GW (75%)
[37]
. However,
China has excelled with a total installed solar power capacity of ca.
43 GW as of December 2015, thereby replacing long-time table topper
Germany in the global rankings
[36]
. Moreover, China also has plans to
increase its solar power capacity to 150 GW by 2020.
According to the American Solar Energy Industries Association, the
total solar PV capacity of the USA could reach 45 GW by 2017
[38]
. In
Australia, solar power has become the foremost source of new power,
producing 913 MW against 774 MW derived from wind power in 2015
[39]
. Interestingly, 1300 MW of coal power was decommissioned in
Australia at the same year
[39]
. This was applauded as a huge drive
towards replacing conventional coal-based power generation and
achieving a greener earth.
In India, the installed solar power grid reached a capacity of 3743
(March 2015), 6762 (March 2016), and 8062 MW (July 2016)
[40]
.
With such developments, India is currently planning to increase its solar
power capacity to a staggering 100,000 MW by 2022
[40]
. Similarly on
the European front, France plans to construct a 1,000-kilometer-long
solar roadway, with each kilometer capable of providing enough clean
energy to power 5000 homes
[41]
. To recap,
Table 2
lists the present
solar power generation capacities and world rankings at the end of
2015.
2.2. Regulation and policy frameworks
In 2015, the global investment with regard to solar energy experi-
enced an upsurge, especially in China, the USA, Africa, Latin America,
the Middle East, and India. Although China is projected to retain its
leading position, the USA is tipped to exhibit robust growth in 2016,
due to the anticipation of the Federal Investment Tax Credit (ITC). It is
also assumed that the USA will replace Japan as the third largest solar
market, exceeding the much-anticipated 10 GW mark in 2016.
However, in Europe, slow growth with regard to solar power invest-
ments was observed in 2015, compared to the preceding year. The total
global corporate funding within the solar sector (including venture
capital/private equity, debt
fi
nancing, and public market
fi
nancing)
was USD 25.3 billion in 2015, compared to USD 26.5 billion in 2014
[42]
. In Germany, the 2014 Renewable Energy Act set
fi
xed values to
the purchase and remuneration of PV electricity as well as levies on self-
consumption
[43]
. From 2016, systems generating over 100 kW must
directly market their electricity. Moreover, the electricity surcharge
was raised to 7.56
€
-cts-kWh
−
1
in 2016, about triple that of the charge
in 2014, which was 2.54
€
-cts-kWh
−
1
[44]
. Due to drops in the feed-in
tari
ff
among other obstacles, new imposing laws may substantially
decline the number of new PV installations in Germany. Meanwhile, in
the UK, the value of solar-power investments dropped from £5bn (in
2014) to £3.5bn (in 2015) as a result of cuts to large-scale generators.
The UK government cut subsidies to household solar power systems by
65% with plans to eliminate subsidies by 2020 courtesy of the EU state
rules
[45]
. Italy is also aiming to truncate all solar power incentives (by
10
̴
25%) on similar grounds
[46]
. Spain and Greece have also made
similar cuts as well. According to new policies by the Spanish govern-
ment, PV systems with capacities of 10
–
100 kW must add excess elec-
tricity to the grid without compensation, whilst systems with capacities
over 100 kW must be registered in order to sell electricity on the spot
market
[47]
. It is suspected that lobbying e
ff
orts made in a desire to
secure their bulk investments by the fossil fuel energy industry are
making the governments of some European countries hesitate to
maintain the support for the solar power sector.
3. Limitations and bene
fi
ts of solar energy technologies
Solar energy is a constant power source that could provide energy
security and energy independence to all. Such a propensity is hugely
important not only for individuals but also for the socio-economic
prosperity of companies, societies, states, and nations. Nevertheless,
solar power is now being adopted as a natural and substantial part of
electricity generation in many developed and developing countries to
ful
fi
ll energy needs. However, there are a number of limitations as well
as bene
fi
ts associated with its use.
3.1. Limitations of solar energy technologies
High initial installation cost is one of the most signi
fi
cant
fl
aws of
the solar energy system; for example, the average price per watt for
solar energy was $3.70 in the USA in early 2016
[48]
. Based on an
average solar energy system of 5 kW per household, the system would
cost $13,000 when the Federal solar tax credit is put into consideration
(thereby reducing costs by 30%). However, lengthy payback periods
and small revenue streams also reduce the value of credits for such
systems
[35]
. Furthermore, the e
ffi
ciencies of most domestic solar pa-
nels are around 10
–
20% which is another shortcoming of solar tech-
nology
[12]
. However, more e
ffi
cient (ca. > 20%) solar panels are also
available at higher prices. The performance limitations of other com-
ponents such as batteries, inverters, etc. are other areas with con-
siderable room for improvement. Short battery lifetimes and the safe
disposal of spent batteries are another concern with regard to solar
energy systems. Moreover, batteries are often large and heavy, thereby
requiring large storage space. Additionally, as solar panels are made
Table 1
Comparison of the global power capacity between di
ff
erent renewable energy sectors
(Unit: GW)
[1]
.
Order
Power capacity
Year
2013
2014
2015
1
Total Renewable power
1578
1712
1849
2
Hydropower
1018
1055
1064
3
Bio-power
88
93
106
4
Geothermal
12.1
12.8
13.2
5
Solar PV
138
177
227
6
Concentrating solar thermal
3.4
4.4
4.8
7
Wind power capacity
319
370
433
Table 2
The 2015 global ranking for solar power generation capacity.
[1]
.
World Ranking
Country Name
Total Capacity (MW) at
2015
Installed (MW) in
2015
1
China
43,180
15,130
2
Germany
39,553
1418
3
Japan
33,300
10,000
4
USA
27,400
7260
5
Italy
19,160
700
6
UK
8437
3109
7
Spain
6967
6946
8
France
6680
1020
9
Australia
5049
913
10
India
4680
2048
E. Kabir et al.
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