Second edition

Functions


A expressing doubt В expressing support C highlighting a grammatical structure
D giving reasons E negotiating F requesting clarification G reformulating H organising ideas


Examples of learner language

1. 
   Let’s look at the website first. Is that OK?
   
2. 
   i think your answer should be ‘he’s seen’, not ‘he saw? It should be the present perfect.
   
3. 
   OK, so he got up, he had a shower - no, he had breakfast, then he had a shower - then ... er... he got dressed. Right, now I'm ready to write it.
   
4. 
   I’m not sure. I really don’t think it’s right.
   
5. 
   I think they shouldn’t allow mobile phones in schools because they can disturb the class.
   

© That’s a good idea.

7. 
   When I was on holiday last summer I have tried ... I tried snowboarding for the first time.
   

193

Categories	examples	Descriptions
Inaccuracy; pronunciation	There was a terrible flood, /fluid/	Incorrect pronunciation of /fk\d/
Inaccuracy: grammatical	s We swum in the lake every summer. He have taken more than ioo photos last week. News are reported 24 hours a day. I’m pleased that you are interested of the story. a Do you come from the Canada?	8 Wrong/incorrect verb form « Unnecessary auxiliary used as part of the wrong tense / wrong subject-verb agreement ® Wrong/incorrect subject-verb agreement ^ Wrong/incorrect (dependent) preposition « Unnecessary article
Inappropriate style/ register	Give me a cup of coffee. (used in a cafe to order a coffee)	Inappropriate register
Inaccuracy: lexical	My grandfather is a senior man.	Wrong/incorrect adjective
Inaccuracy: spelling	The leafs were a beautiful colour.	Wrong/incorrect spelling (plural leaves)
Inaccuracy: punctuation	Where does he live.	Inaccurate use of full stop

Mistakes can of course be oral or written. We can see some further examples of them in these extracts.


194


Oral mistakes
Here is an example of spoken learner discourse from the classroom. Two students are checking their answers from a listening activity. The mistakes are underlined.

Unit 29 Categorising learners’ mistakes

Student A: What you have for this one? 1 have 'the supermarket'. He wants food and drink.
Student B: Yes, supermarket. And number two? I think it is his birthday, but he talks for the birthday of friend also.
Student A: Yes friend's birthday. He is sixty, (/'siksti/)
Student B: Sixty {/‘siksti/) ...? f think they are friends in school.
Student A: No, sixty (/'siksti/} ... as me and you ...
Student B: (laughing) Sixteen (/siks'tkn/) ... not sixty (/'siksti/) ... you speak bad.
Strident A: That's nokind ... number three ... f have ...
Now read about the kinds of mistakes the students made.
What you have for this one? This utterance (unit of speech) is missing the auxiliary verb do and is an example of grammatical inaccuracy.
he talks for the birthday of friend There are several grammatical inaccuracies in this utterance: the preposition for after talk is incorrect; tire possessive adjective his is missing and the phrase the birthday of friend should be constructed using the possessive У (he talks about his friend's birthday).
as me and you In this utterance the adverb as is used incorrectly, in place of the preposition like. This is an example of grammatical inaccuracy. sixteen OsiksChn!) ... not sixty (/’siksti/). Student A pronounces the person's age incorrectly, making the friend 60, not 16.
you speak bad This utterance is an example of inappropriate language and grammatical inaccuracy. This is inappropriate language for one student to say to another student because it is impolite. In addition, the student has not formed the adverb correctly. That's no kind In this utterance, the student has used an incorrect prefix to make the adjective kind negative. The correct form of this adjective is unkind.
The mistakes here are in different kinds of accuracy (grammatical and pronunciation) and in appropriaey.
Written mistakes
Here is an informal letter written by an intermediate learner. The numbers in the margin refer to the underlined mistakes in each line.


3'V Gree-м TAyqjzA
(AtijhAoy'i ¹


Qajt - Q-A
LSI- /Vlv;


DftCT ~Sq’S',


1
2
3
4
5








6





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Now read about some of the mistakes the students made..
) Incorrect inlensilier (line 1); we use absolutely with extreme adjectives, for example absolutely exhausted. Very would be better here.

2. 
   Inaccurate conjunction (line 2): for is incorrect here. Because would be more accurate.
   
3. 
   Spelling (line 3): shoping is not spelt correctly.
   
4. 
   Lexical inaccuracy {line 4): the adjective classic does not have the same meaning as classical. Classical would be correct here.
   
5. 
   Lexical inaccuracy (line 5): look after is not the correct phrasal verb to use here. Look for would be accurate.
   
6. 
   Inappropriate register (litre 6): Yours sincerely is the dose for a formal, not an informal, letter. Yours or Best Wishes would be more appropriate here.
   

These mistakes are in accuracy (grammatical, lexical and spelling) and appropriacy.
We can see that in speaking and writ ing, mistakes in accuracy relate to misusing
forms of language and include grammatical, lexical, spelling, punctuation and
pronunciation mistakes. Mistakes in appropriacy relate to misuse of register.
■ Key concepts and the language teaching classroom
_: Read these tips and tick the ones which are most important for you.
m Learners can lose motivation if we correct every mistake they make. They become anxious and more unwilling to take risks and this can have a negative effect on their learning. We need to think carefully about what, how and when we correct.

• 
  When correcting learners' written work, it is possible to use a correction code. This uses symbols, for example sp for spelling, which tells learners the type of mistake they have made. This can help learner autonomy because it raises learners' awareness of the types of mistakes they make and encourages them to correct their own mistakes. It's not possible to use a correction code with very young learners, because they are not able to categorise language in this way.
  

(See Unit 32 for more on using correction codes.)
© How we identify and categorise mistakes influences the way we correct them. For example, learners may not. have learnt the word or the structure yet; they may be using a word or structure from their first language by mistake (LI interference); they may have great difficulty making certain sounds, which is another kind of LI interference, or they may need more time to cheek and edit their writing.
© ft is important not only to focus on mistakes of accuracy (e.g. grammar and lexis). Mistakes of appropriacy need correcting as well. Mistakes of appropriacy can often cause more misunderstanding and lack of communication than mistakes of grammar and lexis.

• 
  Mistakes can be a very positive aspect of learning. They show us that learning is taking place and that learners are taking risks with the language.
  

ф Some mistakes matter more than others. Mistakes that cause a breakdown in communication or cause miscommunieation are more significant than those which do not, e.g. leaving off plural s is unlikely to cause a communication breakdown, while using the past instead of going to is likely to,


196

Unit 29 Categorising learners’ mistakes

, dels.. useful до ideruifvand categorise,ourJeamers' tnistakes. Wet might identity
common mistakes made by many students, or focus on mistakes made by individual students. We can use this information when we plan our lessons to make sure we focus on the problems that our students have, and help them develop ways to improve.
© We can get .inf оrmation on оuг Iearners' mi s ta к e s and their needs from hom('work tasks, informal assessments, observation checklists and so on.
© Students may also make mistakes in communication, e.g. in speaking, they may not be very fluent or may not have good interactive strategies, and in writing (hey may not organise their writing according to accepted structures. Learners' mistakes can be in accuracy, appropriacy or communication.
See Unit 32 for correcting learners.
\i rtrij f%oW,^f uiirriyф UAVnjJJ (Open answers)
Look at the table in the Key concepts section of the ways in which we categorise learners' mistakes. Think of at least two more examples for each category of typical mistakes your learners make. Include examples from their written work as well as from their oral work.


Think about these comments from teachers. Which do you agree with and why?

1. 
   I find it hard to categorise my learners' mistakes. I know something is wrong but 1 can't explain to the learners what it is.
   
2. 
   It's very confusing for learners when we talk about inappropriate this or incorrect that. When something's wrong, it's wrong!
   
3. 
   I can identify when there's a problem with word order but I don't always know why it's wrong. ¹
   

1 Correct some of your learners' written work, and identify which are the most common types of mistake and categorise them. Think about why they might he making these mistakes. Which might be a result of LI interference and which might be developmental? Write about what you have learned in your Teacher Portfolio.

2. 
   Audio-record a short extract of your learners doing a task in the classroom. Identify the common mistakes and categorise them, as you did for activity 1. Reflect on the reasons for their mistakes and note your ideas in your Teacher Portfolio.
   
3. 
   For more information on categorising learners' mistakes, look at:
   

Chapter 9, Section 4 of Learning Teaching (Second edition) by Jim Scrivener, Macmillan 2005
http://www.tcachingenglish.org.uk/think/arlidcs/error-correction-l http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/eiTor-correction-2 Also look at 'Correcting written work' at: hUp://www.cambridge.org/cli/tkt








9


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... TKT practice task 29 (See page 243 for answers)
For questions 1 -7, match the learners’ mistakes with the areas of grammar listed A-D. You will need to use some of the options more than once. ¹


Areas of grammar
A adverbs В articles C verb forms D prepositions
Learners’ mistakes


1 My sister wants to be dentist when she grows up.

2. 
   If I seen him, I would have told him.
   
3. 
   He is very keen of becoming a musician.
   
4. 
   My sister and her husband always arrived lately.
   

6. 
   I’m looking for accommodation to live on next year.
   

6. 
   One of the students were late for class today.
   
7. 
   I really want to visit the Oxford University next week.
   

Role	The teacher:
1 Planner	prepares and reflects on the lesson before teaching, anticipates problems and selects, designs and adapts materials.
2 Manager	organises the learning space, makes sure everything in the classroom is running smoothly and sets up rules and routines (i.e. things which are done regularly) for behaviour and interaction.
3 Monitor/Observer	goes around the class during individual, pair and group work activities, checking learning and providing support as necessary.
4 Facilitator	provides opportunities for learning, helps learners to access resources and develop learner autonomy.
5 Diagnostician	works out the causes of learners’ difficulties.
6 Language resource	can be used by the learners for help and advice about language.
7 Assessor	evaluates the language level and attitudes of the learners by using different means of informal and formal assessment.
8 Rapport builder	tries to create a good relationship with and between learners.

You'll notice how teacher roles match with different aspects of teaching and will) dif ferent stages of a lesson. We can be plan ners before the lesson, rapport'builders during the warm-up and lead-in phase, language resources during the language input and practice phase, monitors during role-play, pair work activities or writing, and assessors during the lesson, both formally and informally, and after the lesson when we are correcting learners' work.


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The teacher roles we adopt have to be appropriate for the teaching and learning
lesson alms, the stage ol the lesson, the type of activity and the age, level and attitude of the learners. A teacher using a PPP approach will, for example, at different times of the lesson, act as a controller, a model and a guide. However, these teacher roles are not so appropriate for a teacher using a communicative approach. Teacher roles more suitable for a communicative approach include facilitator, resource, provider of language, prompter.
Effective classroom management, i.e. organising the classroom and the learners, is dependent on the teacher adopting appropriate roles. For example, when learners arrive late in class or misbehave, the teacher needs to deal with the situation appropriately to ensure that the learners understand that this is not acceptable behaviour. In this situation, the teacher's role is primarily to maintain discipline. If, on the other hand, the teacher adopts inappropriate roles, this can have a negative effect on their classroom management. Imagine a situation where one learner is dominating the interaction in the classroom, resulting In other learners becoming annoyed and being unwilling to participate (take part in something). If the teacher lets the learner continue in a dominating role, he or she could lose the respect of the other students and will be less able to facilitate (make easier) their learning. However, if the teacher sets out clear classroom routines and codes of conduct in which learners take turns to participate and listen to each other's contributions, he or she will build rapport with the class and provide the learners with a more supportive learning environment.
There are several common situations in which a teacher has to adapt his or her role as appropriate to encourage smooth classroom management. These include learners not. completing homework, monitoring learners during pair and group activities, learners failing to understand instructions, learners chatting during pair or group work and not focusing on the task.
The roles that teachers adopt also depend on the needs of the learners. With young learners, we might take on the role of a parent or a friend when a young student is unwell or unhappy. With teenage or adult learners, two of the key teacher roles are those of motivating students and maintaining discipline (establishing a dear system of rules and codes of behaviour). With adult students the teacher's roles are often those of facilitator, language resource and diagnostician.
■ Key concepts and the language teaching classroom
Read these tipsand tickthe ones which are most important for you,
ф What we say, how we say it and what we do make our teacher roles dear to
learners. When planning lessons, it is useful to first identify the roles we are going to take on during the lesson and then to think about what we are going to say and do to convey that role dearly to the learners. m It takes practice and experience to know which teacher roles are appropriate with which classes and for which activities. Less experienced teachers may feel comfortable using a limited number of roles at first and then gradually extending their range.
m Some problems with classroom discipline, classroom management and facilitating learning are a result of teachers not adopting appropriate teacher roles.


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Unit 30 Teacher roles

m Learners take time to get used to the teacher working in different roles. For
letiLhers who air^ mote fathtliar with a teaeheL in the role of manager might be confused by a teacher who takes on the role of facilitator, it is useful to provide some learner training and to introduce the new roles slowly so that learners get used to new ways of working.
• It is important to be flexible in teacher roles. Sometimes roles need to he changed because of circumstances in the lesson. For example, when we are monitoring a task and realise that learners have not understood the key language, we take on the role of language resource to clarify the language point so that learners can continue with the task.
m it is sometimes necessary to take on roles we do not always feel comfortable with. When learners do not complete homework tasks, for example, teachers have to be firmer in managing the learners than they usually are. The ability to take on appropriate roles in class is important for establishing class rapport and maintaining a positive and effective learning environment in the classroom.





(See page 243 for answers)


Here is an example of a classroom situation. Read and decide which role (A, B, or C) you think is the most appropriate for the teacher to adopt. Think about what the teacher might say (the exponents).

1. 
   The teacher has just introduced the first conditional to a group of teenage, pro-in ter mediate students through a reading text and wants to find out if they understand what the structure means.
   

A Language resource В Assessor C Monitor

2. 
   Here are four classroom situations. Read and choose which classroom management choice {A, В or C) is most appropriate in each ease. Why do you think it is the best course of action?
   

1. 
   The teacher has planned to start the lesson by going over homework set in the previous lesson. However, only half the class have done it.
   

A The teacher starts the lesson by going over homework as he had planned.
В The teacher puts the students into pairs, one who has done the homework and one who hasn't and goes over homework with the whole class.
C The teacher collects the homework from the students who have done it and tells the other students to bring their completed homework to the next class.

2. 
   The teacher has finished what she planned to do in the lesson but there are still live minutes of the class left.
   

A The teacher tells the students they can leave the class early.
В The teacher tells students to dose their books and to try and remember six of the new words from the lesson.
C The teacher plays the listening text from the lesson again and tells students to listen more carefully.


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3. 
   Half tlie students always arrive late for the lesson because they have gym
   

-immediately
A The teacher gives a workbook exercise to the students who come on time,
В The teacher punishes the students who come late.
C The teacher prepares a game on the topic of the lesson for the students who come on time.

4. 
   The students are passive and always wait for the teacher to tel! them the answers and to give examples. He wants them to participate more actively in the lessons. A The teacher lets students check answers and ideas in pairs before eliciting
   

answers from the class.
В The teacher tells the students that they must participate more.
C The teacher asks a question or asks for an example and then waits until a student answers.


Think about these teachers⁷ comments. Which do you agree with and why?

1. 
   I like my class to be very organised and I like to be in control. I believe the main roles of a teacher are to manage and assess.
   
2. 
   i think of myself as a facilitator in my classroom because I want my learners to become more independent.
   
3. 
   I'm in my twenties. My students are the same age as me. I like the classes to be informal, so I don't think many of the teacher roles are appropriate for me. ¹
   

1 Think about a lesson you have taught recently and look at the lesson plan. Which of the teacher roles in this unit did you use? Were you effective in making these roles clear to the learners? H not, why do you think that was? Are there any teacher roles that you didn't use and which, on reflection, you think would have been appropriate? Write your thoughts and reflections in your Teacher Portfolio,

2. 
   Read An A-Z of Classroom Management by Simon Brown, English Teaching Publications, Issue 62, Key ways Publishing
   

http://www.teacherplus.org/2009/oetober-2009/aiba-z-oE-dassroom-management

2. 
   Look at 'Classroom management⁷ at: http: / / www. ca mbridge. org/e 11 / tkt and also
   

http://www.englishteacherlink.com/publieation/ver/id/158/reactmg-to-problem behaviour
bUp://www.macmillanenglish.com/webinar.aspx?id“47122

2. 
   Cheek the following roles in the TKT Glossary or in a dictionary: contributor, counsellor; reflector, active role, passive role, narrator, supportive, unsupportive.
   

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Unit 30 Teacher roles