Second edition

children sugar	to name people, places, things, qualities, ideas, or activities to act as the subject/object of the verb
countable, uncountable, proper, common, abstract, collective
Verbs	see run take off	to show an action, state or experience	transitive, intransitive, regular, irregular, participles, gerunds, infinitives, modals, multi-word verbs, phrasal verbs, tenses, active voice, passive voice, imperative
Adjectives	easy	to describe or give more information about a noun, pronoun or part of a sentence	comparative, superlative
Adverbs	completely yesterday at the end	to say more about how, when, where, etc. something happens by adding information to adjectives, verbs, other adverbs or sentences	degree, manner, time, focus, frequency, quantity, attitude markers
Determiners	my the this both	to make clear which noun is referred to	possessive adjectives, articles, demonstrative adjectives, quantifiers
Prepositions	after at in the middle of	to show the relationship between a noun, noun phrase or pronoun and another word or phrase	time, place, direction, contrast, exemplification, exception, cause and effect, dependent
Pronouns	she mine who myself	to replace or refer to a noun or noun phrase mentioned earlier or about to be mentioned	personal, possessive, relative, reflexive
Conjunctions	as and but	to join words, sentences or parts of sentences	reason, addition, contrast, time, condition, purpose, result
Exclamations	er 01N	to show a (strong) feeling - especially in informal spoken language	feelings of doubt or pain

9

Structure	Form
Past continuous/ progressive	subject + past tense of verb to be + -mg form of verb e.g. he was running
Passive voice	subject + to be + past participle (+ by + agent) e.g. the road was built {by the company)
Comparative of long’ adjectives	more + long adjective (+ than) e.g. he was more embarrassed than his friend
Prepositional phrase	preposition + (articie/determiner/..) + noun e.g. for an hour
Contrast clauses	subordinating conjunction of contrast + finite clause e.g. Nobody listened although she spake verv slowlv and clearly

As we can see from this table, we find grammatical structures not just in different forms of the parts of speech but also at the level of sentences, phrases and clauses.
We can also talk about how words are formed through word building. One important way in which English forms words is through the use of two kinds of affixes (a group of letters added at the beginning or end of a base word which change its meaning): prefixes and suffixes. Affixes can give grammatical information, showing whether a verb is singular, for example, or marking a tense, parts of verbs, the plural of nouns, possessives, e.g. talked, goes, going, books, girl% Many other prefixes and suffixes are used in English to make new words, by changing their part of speech and adding a meaning to the base word, e.g. disappear, careful friendly. Some common prefixes in English are un~!dis~/re~/im-/m-/over~/un-lil-lpre~. Some common suffixes are - men tl- о и si-able/- less/-fu If- tionl- ly.
What are grammatical uses?
Grammatical uses refer to how grammatical structures are used to convey (or communicate) meaning. A particular grammatical structure, e.g. the present continuous (or progressive), does not always have the same meaning. Its meaning or use comes from the context in which it is used. For example She is doing her homework might mean:

1. 
   she is doing her homework now/at the moment: the present continuous used for actions at the moment of speaking.
   
2. 
   she has decided to do her homework at a specific time in the future. The reader or listener understands from the context that this refers to an arrangement for the future, e.g. the question What is she doing this evening?, the present continuous used for firm plans and intentions.
   
3. 
   she has improved her study habits and regularly does her homework, which she didn't do before: the present continuous used for temporary actions happening around the time of speaking.
   

10

Structure	Some uses
Present simple	to describe a present state e.g. / live in London. to describe actions or situations which happen repeatedly but which might not be happening at the moment e.g. 1 read newspapers and magazines. to refer to the future in a scheduled timetable e.g. The plane leaves at Ю.30. to tell a story e.g. They get to the bus stop earty and start talking to the other people. Suddenly... to provide a commentary e.g. Wow here's Jones. He shoots but the goalkeeper manages to save it ~ another lucky escape!
Present perfect	to describe past actions which have some connection to the present e.g. I’ve seen that him. to describe an event or situation which is part of one’s life experience e.g. I’ve visited most of the countries in Europe. to describe a temporary state or action that started in the past and still continues e.g. We’ve been staying in university accommodation all summer.
Adverbs	to describe how something is done e.g. She ate her food quickly. to focus on something e.g. He only likes pizza. to show an attitude to something e.g. They can’t come, unfortunately.

и Key concepts and the language teaching classroom
Read these tips and tick the ones which are most important for you.
@ Grammar rules describe the way that language works, but language changes over time, so grammar rules are not fixed. They change, too. But grammar rules and grammar books don't always change as quickly as the language, so they are not always up-to-date. For example, some grammar books say that we should use whom rather than who after prepositions. But in fact, except in some situations, who is generally used, with a different word order, e.g. Tve just met the girl who I talked to on Friday' is much more common and accepted than 'I've just met the girl to whom I talked on Friday'. Teachers need to keep up-to-date with what parts of the language are changing and how.
m Grammar rules traditionally describe written language rather than spoken language. For example, repetition, exclamations and contractions {two words that are pronounced or written as one, e.g. don't, isn’t, won't) are common features (important parts) of spoken language, but they are not always described in grammar books. Some grammar books are now available which describe spoken language, too.


11

Nouns	Verbs		Adjectives		Adverbs		Determiners
Prepositions		Pronouns		Conjunctions		Exclamations

0. 
   Use prefixes and suffixes to make maps, as in the example, from these words: decide, luck, able
   

fortunately
unfortunate fortunate


misfortune unfortunately


12

Examples of structures	Term	Form
A cold day in Prague	Noun phrase	Indefinite article + adjective + common noun + preposition + proper noun
The most expensive	Superlative adjective
The girl who f saw last night	Defining relative clause
	The present simple passive
	Verb + gerund
As he didn’t understand
	Indirect command
You ought to hurry up

4 Read through the text below and identify the uses of the grammatical forms
underlined.
A: The most amazing thing happened to me yesterday. I was leaving the house and I noticed that it was going to rain, so 1 ran back inside for my umbrella. As soon as I got out of the door, it started to pour down, f tried to open the umbrella but it wouldn't open. If I'd stood under the bathroom shower with my clothes on,

1. 
   wouldn't have got any wetter! Then I felt something land on my head, it was bigger and heavier than a raindrop. 1 looked on the ground and I couldn't believe my eyes. There were lots of tiny frogs falling in the rain.
   

B: Oh no. Are you sure?
A: Absolutely!
B: I've heard of it raining eats and dogs, but never frogs!





Think about these teachers' comments. Which do you agree with and why?

1. 
   My students say learning grammar is really boring and doesn't help them speak.
   
2. 
   Children don't learn grammar when they learn their first language but adults who learn a second language really need to.
   
3. 
   We need to learn grammar terms to help us learn a language more easily and quickly.
   

1. 
   What grammar reference materials are available in your school? Do they describe spoken or written English? Are they up-to-date? How could they help you with your teaching?
   
2. 
   Compare any two of these books on grammar or the grammar information on the two websites. Which do you prefer? Why? Are they more useful for you or your learners?
   

Practical English Usage (Third edition) by Michael Swan, Oxford Universit y Press 2005


13

Module i

English Grammar In Use {Third edition) by Raymond Murphy, Cambridge Univcasily Press 2004
Cambridge Grammar of English by Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge University Press 2006
hup://wwwUuitishcoundI.org/learnenglish-cenlrai-gramma r-current.htm http://www.engiishdub.com/grammar/index.btm

3. 
   Look at 'Teaching grammar effectively' at: http://www.cambridge.org/eit/tkt
   
4. 
   Read the grammar section of the TKT Glossary, Can you think of examples of all the terms mentioned?
   

N.B. The TKT always contains a task on grammatical form and a task on grammatical use. For this reason this unit contains two practice tasks.


TKT practice task 1A (See page 245 for answers)
For questions 1-7, look at the sentences and the three words from each listed A, В and 0.
Two of the words have the same grammatical function in the sentence. One does NOT. Choose the letter (A_t В or C) which does NOT have the same grammatical function,

1. 
   She told us it was very cold there.
   

A she
В it C there

2. 
   It was built when they were young, so they don’t remember the old building.
   

A was
В were C don’t

3. 
   Nobody understood his spoken French because his accent was so ‘strong’.
   

A understood
В spoken C was

4. 
   He studied IT for his job but he made very slow progress so he gave up.
   

A for
В but 0 so

5. 
   They took off their coats and went to the table near the window.
   

A off
В to 0 near


14

unit i Grammar

6. 
   She found it really hard to concentrate as it was so noisy there. A really
   

В so О noisy

7. 
   The young cat ran too fast for the dog to catch it easily.
   

A young В fast C easily