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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
code compiled in the 11th and 12th centuries which has survived until
today — contains certain curious arithmetical problems alongside the
more typical prescriptions. One of the first Russian mathematicians was
Kirik of Novgorod (Kolyagin, 2001, p. 11; Polyakova, 1997, p. 23),
who had produced a mathematical treatise as early as 1136. Kirik
performed his calculations with an abacus and used wax tablets for
scratch paper. Using the lunar and solar cycles, he was able to calculate
time, the shifting date of Easter, the leap year, and so on. He made use
of fractions when describing the precise time of day. Kirik’s handbook
was used in the so-called elementary grammar schools during the times
of Yaroslav the Wise and enjoyed widespread influence. Tragically,
the cultural development of Kievan Rus was cut short by the Tatar-
Mongolian invasion.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, mathematics was considered a
practical skill associated with housekeeping and trade, and was not
made part of elementary education. It was transferred orally and
practically (with the use of the abacus). The first handbooks (as opposed
to textbooks) appeared around this time: Cipher-Counting Science
and Convenient Counting, among others (Kolyagin, 2001; Polyakova,
1997).
The renowned scholar A. I. Sobolevsky (1857–1929) believed
that the large number of manuscripts that have survived, despite the
great fires of the 15th–17th centuries, suggest that these texts were
copied by thousands of scribes and intended for wide readership
(Kolyagin, 2001, p. 11). Arithmetical manuscripts (studied by the
historian of mathematics V. V. Bobynin) typically had a foreword that
located arithmetic among the seven “liberal arts”: grammar, rhetoric,
dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Together, these
“arts” constituted the core of higher learning in the medieval age.
A typical manuscript included the numeral system, the four arithmetical
operations with natural numbers, calculation, fractions, and so forth.
The texts provided the reader with arithmetical rules, extensively
illustrated with various exercises ranging from simple to complex.
There were problems involving proportional division of property,
estimating the need for containers, mixtures, payments to business
associates and clerks, division of profit, interest, and other topics. Here
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
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The History and the Present State
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is an example of a problem from such a manuscript (Kolyagin, 2001,
p. 16):
How many days will it take for the wife to drink a keg of kvas if she
and her husband together drink a keg in 10 days, while the husband
alone can drink it in 14 days?
Solution. Take 10 from 14: there remains 4. Say, 4 gives 10. What
will give 14? Multiply 14 by 10, and get 140; divide 140 by 4, and
get 35 days. It will take 35 days for the wife to drink a keg of kvas by
herself.
The first printed work in mathematics,
The Book of Convenient
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