7.2
The Content of the Elementary Course
in Mathematics
Let us consider the content of the elementary course in mathematics
across a variety of textbooks.
All of the textbooks cover the following major topics: “Num-
bers and arithmetical operations,” “Solving arithmetical problems,”
“Magnitudes,” “Elements of algebra,” and “Elements of geometry.”
Some of the textbooks include additional topics such as “Elements of
combinatorics and elements of logic” (Demidova et al., 2009; Ivashova
et al., 2009; Peterson, 2009; Rudnitskaya and Yudacheva, 2009); “Ele-
ments of descriptive statistics and basic concepts in probability theory”
(Demidova et al., 2009); “Unconventional and recreational problems”
(Bashmakov and Nefedova, 2009; Demidova et al., 2009; Ivashova
et al., 2009; Moro et al., 2009); and “Geometric transformations”
(Chekin, 2009; Istomina, 2009; Peterson, 2009). Let us examine some
of these topics in greater detail.
7.2.1
Numbers and arithmetical operations
All of the textbooks cover the following subjects:
Counting objects. Names, succession, and notation of numbers from
0 to 1,000,000. Number relations, such as “equal,” “greater than,”
“less than,” and their notation:
=, <, >. The decimal numbering
system. Classes and digit positions. The positional principle of
number notation.
All textbooks, with the exceptions of Alexandrova (2009) and
Davydov et al. (2009), are structured concentrically: the students first
learn the numbers 1 through 10, then the numbers up to 100, and then
up to 1000 and beyond. This corresponds to the child’s experience
and to the methodological tradition in Russia. The textbooks present
a variety of methods for deriving numbers: counting, addition, and
subtraction of 1, measurement, and arithmetical operations with other
numbers. In Alexandrova (2009) and Davydov et al. (2009), the
main method of deriving numbers (natural as well as rational, etc.) is
measurement. By introducing a variety of measuring units, the course
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prepares first and second graders for the study of different counting
systems and permits them to see the decimal system as one possibility
among several.
This approach does not take into account the child’s preschool
experience, but it permits students with different levels of preparation
to feel confident in discovering new knowledge. One drawback of both
Alexandrova (2009) and Davydov et al. (2009) is that the text does
not differentiate between notations referring to magnitudes and those
referring to sets or figures. This approach may lead to confusion over
such concepts as “finite set” and “size of finite set,” “segment,” and
“length of segment; it runs counter to the principle of continuity, since
at a later stage the student will be asked to differentiate these concepts
through notation (Beltiukova et al., 2009).
All other textbooks use a concentric structure to teach derivation
of numbers, their names and sequencing, the decimal order, positional
notation, and various methods of number comparison. Many of the
textbooks make use of historical references (Bashmakov and Nefedova,
2009; Demidova et al., 2009; Ivashova, 2009; Peterson, 2009; Rud-
nitskaya and Yudacheva, 2009).
All textbooks make extensive use of various types of modeling. For
example, in learning the decimal numbering system, students are asked
to use sticks and bundles of sticks or squares for ones, strips for tens,
and large squares for hundreds. The great majority of the textbooks
make use of the number line; Arginskaya et al. (2009) and Istomina
(2009) use the segment of natural numbers, while Alexandrova (2009)
and Davydov et al. (2009) discuss various kinds of positional notation.
All of the textbooks cover the following subjects associated with
arithmetical operations:
Addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, corresponding
terminology. Tables of addition and multiplication. Number rela-
tions, such as “greater by … ,” “smaller by … ,” “ … times greater,”
and “ … times less.” Division with remainder. Arithmetical operations
with zero. Determining the order of operations in numerical expres-
sions. Finding the value of expressions with parentheses and without.
Changing the order of addends and multipliers. Grouping addends
and multipliers. Multiplying a sum by a number, and a number by
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