6
The Elementary Course in Mathematics
in the Soviet School, 1969–1990s
In 1969, Soviet schools adopted the elementary course in mathematics.
According to the well-known methodologist and author of the new
curriculum, Pchelko (1977):
The appearance of such a course, comprising arithmetic, algebraic
propedeutics and elements of geometry, is a remarkable achievement,
highly rational and absolutely novel, not only in the history of our
school system, but also in worldwide practice. The three mathematical
disciplines — arithmetic, algebra, and geometry — that have been
taught separately for centuries are hereby joined in a synthetic
course — the elementary course in mathematics. (p. 17)
The 1969 program grounded fundamental practical skills in the-
oretical knowledge and was characterized by “the tendency to max-
imize the students’ cognitive abilities and in every way promote
their development throughout the educational process” (Programma,
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
1971, p. 18). Theoretical knowledge became part of the curriculum
primarily as a means of explaining calculation techniques. The nature
of arithmetical operations, the interdependence of terms and results,
multiplication by 0 and 1, and so on, were taught at a fairly high
level of abstraction. In many cases, letters were used to generalize
statements about numbers. This information was first absorbed with
the help of specialized exercises and was subsequently used to explain
calculation techniques. M. A. Bantova had developed a system of
structuring calculation skills that is still widely used today (by a variety
of authors). Students were taught a variety of calculation techniques
and given the opportunity to choose the most rational of the lot,
such as:
48
· 25 = (40 + 8) · 25 = 40 · 25 + 8 · 25
48
· 25 = (12 · 4) · 25 = 12 · (4 · 25)
48
· 25 = 48 · (20 + 5) = 48 · 20 + 48 · 5
48
· 25 = 48 · 100 ÷ 4 = 48 ÷ 4 · 100
For each new calculation technique, students were given a theo-
retical explanation and asked to perform exercises so as to secure the
new skill. Here are a few examples of such exercises drawn from a
contemporary textbook modeled on the exercises of that era (Moro
et al., 2009; third grade; pp. 6–9):
• Calculate, then explain your calculations:
(5 + 3 ) · 4 (20 + 7 ) · 2 (6 + 4 ) · 8
• Solve the problem using different methods:
A grandmother gave each of her three grandchildren 4 red
apples and 4 yellow apples. How many apples in total did the
grandchildren receive?
• Explain why these equalities are correct:
8
· 3 + 7 · 3 = (8 + 7) · 3
6
· 8 + 4 · 8 = 10 · 8
17
· 5 + 3 · 5 = (17 + 3) · 5
The topic “Changing the results by changing terms” was gradually
covered in grades 1–3. At the first stage (grades 1 and 2), students
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learned about the type of change that occurs when one of the terms is
altered; for example, if the value of one addend is increased while the
other remains the same, the sum will also increase. At the second stage
(third grade), students were able to quantify the change and formulate
rules; for example, if the value of one of the addends is increased by a
certain number of units while the other remains the same, the result
will be increased by the same number of units.
Here are a few sample exercises for the first and second stages from
textbooks for the first and third grades:
• Fill in the blanks with any appropriate number (first grade):
15
+ 3 > 15 + · · ·
17
− 5 < 17 − · · ·
45
+ · · · > 18 + 45
68
− · · · < 68 − 5
• Calculate the value of the second expression using the value of
the first (third grade):
420
÷ 6, 420 ÷ (6 · 2)
320
÷ 8, 320 ÷ (8 : 2)
540
÷ 6, 540 ÷ (6 · 5)
The students’ grasp of these properties served as the founda-
tion for learning specific calculation techniques (e.g. 368
+ 99 =
368
+ 100 − 1) and as the first steps toward an understanding of
functional dependency.
This approach encouraged conscious, rational, and accurate calcu-
lation, and promoted a cognitive development and calculation culture
among elementary school students.
Through algebraic propedeutics, students learned about expres-
sions (with numbers and variables), equalities, inequalities, and
equations, solution strategies for word problems, and functional
dependencies of quantities.
Here are a few sample problems from textbooks of that period
(Moro et al., 1970, pp. 175, 219):
• Compose exercises and solve them: 17 + x = 20; x + 3 = 20;
17
+ 3 = x.
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