Article
Religious fundamentalism,
individuality, and collective
identity: A case study of two
student organizations in Iran
Mohammad Razaghi
, Hasan Chavoshian and
Hamid Ebadollahi Chanzanagh
University of Guilan, Islamic Republic of Iran
Kamran Rabiei
Tarbiat Modares University, Islamic Republic of Iran
Abstract
This study investigates the relationships between religious fundamentalism, collective identity, and
individuality. The questions addressed in this research are: Who is joining fundamentalist student
organizations? Why and how are they doing so? And, how do these organizations maintain their
collective identity in the face of ever-growing individualism? To gain an adequate understanding of
the fundamentalist characteristics of such organizations, we first explored the existing theoretical
literature. Then, we performed a qualitative case study of two student organizations at the
University of Guilan: the Basij and Welayat Lovers. Our findings indicate that although these
organizations strongly tend to define and impose a unified collective identity on their members,
some important social trends, such as the expansion of secularist higher education and rising
levels of students’ knowledge, skills, and their reinforced individuality, leave little room for the
growth of a fundamentalist collective identity.
Keywords
Religious fundamentalism, collectivism, collective identity, individualism, individuality
Corresponding author:
Mohammad Razaghi, University of Guilan, Rasht, Guilan 41635-3988, Islamic Republic of Iran.
Email: mohammadrazzaqi@gmail.com
2020, Vol. 8(1) 3–24
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The Author(s) 2020
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/2050303219900226
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Introduction
Modernity is not a monolithic phenomenon (Rabasa and Stacie 2010, 5) or even, as
Habermas (1993, 98–109) says, an “unfinished project of Enlightenment.” In the face of
modernization, non-Western countries, including Muslim ones, adopt aspects of individu-
alism as well as new forms of ideology and collective identity, in a dialectical manner
(Behnam 1990, 347–374; Therborn 2003, 293–305) in the same way that the relationship
between liberalism and socialism, both as secularist political philosophies, influenced the
formulation of modernity.
Some scholars argue that the emergence of Islamic fundamentalism and the formation of
fundamentalist networks is a reaction against the West which led to an identity crisis in
Islamic societies. As a result, important questions were raised (Giddens 2011). Why, and
through what mechanism, do individuals and groups turn to religious fundamentalism?
How does the construction of an
autonomous agency
lead to the formation of a collective
identity in the form of membership in an Islamic fundamentalist group?
It is necessary to mention that religious fundamentalist ideas are not a new phenomenon
or unique to a region. Although religious fundamentalism has a Protestant-Christian origin,
acknowledged by many experts (Bakhash 1986; Bruce 2011, 387–405; Moore 2007; McCune
1996; Ruthven 2007; Salzman 2008; Freedman 1996), it has become a global phenomenon,
mostly as form of resistance to modernity and has been observed in other areas, especially in
the Islamic world (Tibi 1998). Some believe that after the collapse of communism and the
fall of the Berlin Wall, religious fundamentalism became the new challenge confronting the
modern world (Freedman 1994).
Islamic fundamentalist groups take many forms (Halliday 1994, 91–113), and their diver-
sity and differences are due to the different roles religion plays in the public sphere in
Islamic countries (Boubekeur 2007, 75–94). The structure of the institution of religion
in Islamic societies is one of the factors affecting the formation of fundamentalist groups
and networks; there is especially a difference between Shiite and Sunni groups in this regard.
Among Shiites, fundamentalist groups such as the Houthi Movement in Yemen, which is
officially called Ansar Allah (Supporters of God) (Juneau 2016, 647–663), tends to be cen-
tralized and corresponds to the hierarchy of the official Shiite institution, while in the
Sunni world, many fundamentalist groups, such as al-Qaeda and Daesh (ISIS), act as a
centrifugal force and reject the mainstream Sunni clerical institution (Alagha 2016, 29;
Khosrowkhavar 2017; Stern and Berger 2015; Hashim 2014, 69–83).
This article seeks to examine the perspective and actions of religious fundamentalist
groups and to demonstrate how the process of undermining individuality and constructing
a new collective identity is achieved through group membership and participation in collec-
tive actions. Using problem-focused interviews and collaborative observations, we studied
the perspectives and behaviors of the members of the
Basij
1
called
Student Basij
2
and the
Lovers of Welayat
3
at the University of Guilan
4
in Iran. The article, first, assesses the
presence or absence of religious fundamentalist ideas among the Basiji students and
Welatyat Lovers, the second which is ideologically and religiously related to the first.
This project, then, investigates the identity seeking mechanisms among the Basiji students.
In these organizations, individuals enter a new cycle of socialization and face a transforma-
tion in their identity and values. In the process of this re-socialization, their individuality is
challenged, and the collective identity is strengthened in accordance with fundamentalist
values and norms.
4
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
Religious fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism
The term fundamentalism can be used in very different religious contexts and texts to
describe the devotion and strict loyalty to a set of principles or ideas. Religious fundamen-
talism is the approach of those religious groups that look for the literal interpretation of
original religious texts or books believing that teachings obtained from this kind of reading
must be used in all social, economic, and political aspects. Religious fundamentalists believe
that only one view of the world can be true, and their view is the only one; there is no room
for ambiguity or multiple interpretations. According to Anthony Giddens (2006, 571) in the
movements of religious fundamentalism, access to holy texts is restricted just to a group of
privileged “interpreters” of priests, pastors, or other religious leaders.
In his definition of religious fundamentalism, Manuel Castells ([1999] 2005, 30) notes the
attempt to unify the identity:
According to my understanding, religious fundamentalism is constructing an identity to unify
the individual and community institutions’ behavior with the norms that come from God’s laws,
and their interpretation is the responsibility of the powerful reference, which is the mediator
between God and humanity.
According to Castells, religious fundamentalism existed throughout human history,
but at the end of the millennium, as a source of identity, it is incredibly powerful and has
influential effects (Castells and Cardoso 2005, 30). Religious fundamentalism has a political
nature and identity and feels threatened and insecure against enemies and the forces of evil.
Religious fundamentalism takes different forms at different times and places, all of which
have similar characteristics. Islamic fundamentalism is one of the forms of religious
fundamentalism.
Regarding the Islamic form of fundamentalism, John Esposito, Jay PJ Vatikotis, and
Michael Fisher, referring to political developments and events in Iran, Afghanistan, Egypt,
Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Sudan, Bangladesh and Libya in the late 1970s and 1980s, described
them as “Islamic Revival.” Bobby Sayyid (2003), while criticizing the widespread view of the
West, which portrays fundamentalism as synonymous with Islamic revival, suggests that
instead of “Islamic fundamentalism,” a more general concept of “Islamism” is better and
has more explanatory power.
Demant (2006) identifies three waves of Islamism. The first wave occurred between 1967
and 1981. Sayyed Ghotb was the prominent theorist and the Sunni jihadist idea became
fruitful during this period. The second wave was a Shiite wave starting with Iran’s Islamic
revolution in 1979 and extended into the 1980s. The third wave of Islamism arose after
September 11, 2001 and had significant differences with the objectives and scope of practice
of the two previous waves.
Investigating Islamic fundamentalism, many scholars, like Demant (2006), consider the
victory of the Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979 as a historical milestone, leading to the
rapid growth of (Islamic) religious fundamentalist groups and movements in the world
(Abrahamian 2008). Therefore, it is important to study the groups and organizations that
have contributed to the Islamic Revolution and the consolidation of the Islamic state in
Iran. In this regard, studying the Niruyeh Moghavemat Basij (Mobilization Resistance
Force) or briefly “Basij,” as the volunteer-based branch of the Islamic Revolutionary
Guard Corps (IRGC),
5
is of great importance. Since 1979, the Revolutionary Guard
Razaghi et al.
5
Corps have played a pivotal role in the consolidation of the Islamic regime, and its Basij
branch in the mobilization of the oppressed (Wehrey and Green 2009).
The Basij, as an organization, has several branches, segments, and guilds. Each university
in Iran has a Student Basij that are not a part of the organizational charts of universities
or the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology. These branches aim to implement
the instructions and views of Imam Khomeini, the founder and leader of the Islamic
Republic, and “to prepare for the comprehensive defense of the achievements of the
Islamic Revolution in various cultural, scientific and defense fields” (Ministry of Science,
Research and Technology 2013, 446–451).
To appoint the head of the Student Basij, at each university, the Basiji (individual
members of Basij) students at each university recommend three individuals in writing to
the university president, and, by agreement between the parties, one of the named persons is
appointed as the head of the Student Mobilization Branch at that university. In order to
realize its goals, the Student Mobilization must accomplish a set of tasks (Supreme Cultural
Revolution Council of Iran 2000):
•
To attract, train and organize volunteer students.
•
To familiarize students with the culture of sacrifice and martyrdom and to intro-
duce the swords of the Islamic Revolution and the Holy Defense.
•
To collaborate in the development of scientific and defense research and research
which promotes progress and construction in Iran.
•
To maintain and promote the spirit of Anti-Arrogance in students.
•
To conduct conferences, conferences, festivals, and competitions that are
required.
•
To conduct courses, camps and cultural, scientific, and defense classes including
academic defense courses outside the university.
•
To publish the books and magazines of the Student Mobilization in accordance
with the standards approved by the Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution
and relevant guidelines.
•
To cooperate with the authorities of the university and the academic institutions
according to the guidelines and instructions of the Basij Resistance Force.
Since its formation on December 5, 1979, and the adoption of its law in the parliament, the
Basij has played a significant role in all major political developments in Iran (Ostovar 2013,
345–361). Moreover, the Student Basij was established in 1988, at the order of Ayatollah
Khamenei, and has since become the most important arm of the government to supervise
and control the universities, and actively inhibit critical students and student organizations.
During the presidency of Mohammad Khatami (1997–2005), during the so called
reform era
,
the Student Basij and other Islamist student organizations, frequently disrupted speeches
given by the reformers and critics of the government at universities, participated in sit-ins in
front of the parliament, and organized protests outside various ministries and embassies
of foreign countries (Mason 2014, 88). During Mahmoud Ahmadinejad’s presidency
(2005–2013), on November 29, 2011, a protest was organized in front of the British embassy
in Tehran by various student-run university-based Islamic organizations. The embassy was
temporarily occupied by an action which led to its closure for four years (Kemp and Gay
2013, 165).
6
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
In addition to the Student Basij, as the most influential Islamic university based and
student-run association, there are other such organizations, including, but not limited to,
the Islamic Association of Students, the Islamic Students’ Society, and the Lovers of
Welayat. Among these organizations, with the exception of the Islamic Association
of Students, the overall goal is to further reinforce and reinvigorate the (Islamic) state, as
opposed to focusing on democratic values and strengthening civil society. The Islamic
Association of Students, however, moved away from its early radicalism, towards a more
reformist approach. What almost all of the Islamic student organizations have in common is
a fundamentalist, intellectual, and ideological context that converges with the official ide-
ology of the state.
In Iran such student groups are understood as part of Osul-Garaˆyaˆn (The Principlists)
(Mozaffari 2007, 17–33). Osul-Garayan is a Persian term given to the conservatives in Iran,
and in the past the Right-Wing was referred to as them. Those who are classified as
Osul-Garayan tend to regard themselves as the real supporters and followers of the supreme
leadership of Iran. They support the official ideology of the state more than other parties
and individuals. The Osul-Garayan are religious in their thinking and lifestyle, and are
supported by religious clerics residing in Qom more than their political rivals, known as
The Eslaˆh-Talabaˆn (The Iranian Reformists) (Mousavian 2012, 486). The Basij and other
Osul-Garayan are considered a fundamentalist faction in the international community
(Mozaffari 2007, 17–33); reformist factions, however, are not labeled the same way. As
Bayat (2013) maintains, the reformist groups can be perceived under the concept of post-
Islamism, which seeks the construction of a democratic society based on justice, in which
religion and faith are mixed with rights, freedom, and democracy at the political level
presenting a new form of government and society.
In relation to the two student associations mentioned above, the focus of this research is
not the application of the general concept of Islamism, as Sayyid intended, but on the form of
Islamism that features religious fundamentalism. This form of Islam is a political ideology
rather than a set of religious beliefs (Tibi 1998). If we accept that religious fundamentalism
could be a social movement or an ideology of identity, it can be said that its purpose is to
strengthen collective identity and collectivist spirit. In contrast, in this type of social group,
individualism is corrupted, excluded, and excommunicated as the achievement of the West,
which is mainly considered as an enemy (Castells and Cardoso 2005), while individuality and
individualist values are incompatible with the fundamental principles and attitudes.
Religious fundamentalist groups, and the redefinition and reconstruction of identity
To better understand religious fundamentalist movements, the characteristics of the indi-
viduals involved, and the principles and conditions governing the intellectual and practical
policy of such groups, we sought answers for the following three questions:
1. Before joining the group, what individual and contextual characteristics did fun-
damentalists have and how did they interpret the “truth” and the meaning of life?
2. After joining the religious fundamentalist groups, how do they see the world? And
what is their emotional orientation and vision?
3. What principles and mechanisms do religious fundamentalist groups use to con-
struct a new collective identity?
Razaghi et al.
7
These are the main questions of the current study, which are our guide for formulating
the conceptual framework of the research. These three questions provide the conceptual
framework for this study. They are meant to discover the narrative of the subjects’ lives,
which we shall analyze.
1. Non-based individuality: conditions before joining the group.
In this section, the factors that
influence people to join fundamentalist religious organizations are classified in the order
of importance and priority. Indices 1.1 to 1.5 below are contextual ones. When these five
indices are brought together with a harmonious and imitative character (index 6) and then
combined with moving away from the motherland and feeling threatened, individuals seek a
replacement, replacing their identity with fundamentalism or reconstruct their identity
through fundamentalist beliefs. In this situation, since the individual’s collective identity
is more fertile than their own individuality, he/she will reconstruct or redefine his/her col-
lective identity. Fundamentalism as a religious ideology has consequences for fundamen-
talists and gives them immunity against disruption, existential anxiety, frustration, and
confusion.
The following traits, which are the main characteristics of religious fundamentalism, will
be considered in this study:
1.1
Family context:
Family context is the most important factor in the formation of
religious beliefs and collective identity. A religious and traditional family pays more atten-
tion to the formation of collective identity and adherence to religious values and social
norms, which are mainly collective, and less attention to individuality and individualistic
values. In the analysis of individual’s religious beliefs and behavior, we must consider the
family and social context of the development and formation of his/her character (Herriot
2009, 149).
1.2
Semanticization and purposefulness (feeling useful and valuable):
Religion and culture
give meaning to human life. If religion becomes an ideological device, undoubtedly, its
semanticization will become clearer, more explicit, and attractive, especially if we live in a
world where there is no single meaning due to pluralism and relativism. Accordingly, fun-
damentalists enjoy having a meaningful and purposeful life and consider themselves useful
and valuable (Becker 1971; Greenberg and Pyszczynski 1997, 61–139; Hood, Hill, and
Williamson 2005).
1.3
Fundamental, innate, vital and infallible “truth” (absolutism versus pluralism):
Most
fundamentalists believe in a fundamental, innate, absolute, and infallible truth. In their
opinion, the holy text contains this absolute truth and there is only one correct interpreta-
tion of the holy text, which is theirs. They assume themselves to be absolutely right, and
others to be wrong and therefore misled and lost. According to them these lost people
should either be led or punished, and they assume they have the right to do so (Salzman
2008, 322; Weinberg and Ami 2004; Lang, Vivienne, and Santosh 2004; Wrench, Michael,
James, and Narissra 2006).
1.4
The authority of the Holy Book (the holy text is unique and absolute, superior to all
cognitive sources and there is only one correct interpretation of it):
Fundamentalists believe
that their holy book is the inspiring source of absolute truth, and that possible errors or
deficiencies in it are because of our incomplete and incorrect understanding of it, or they are
because of deficiency and negligence in our thoughts and actions. The holy book has clearly
stated whatever is necessary for life in this world and the other world; therefore, the validity
8
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
of any other cognitive source must be measured by this (Herriot 2009, 2; Jelen and Santosh
2004, 38).
1.5
A single philosophy for life (A single clear and comprehensive philosophy covering all
lifestyles and instructions for them):
Religious fundamentalism is a lifestyle, which arises
from a single philosophy. Accordingly, Islam is the sole philosophy of life, and the guide
to the only way of life for all humankind. Therefore, any individuality is excluded in this
philosophy because the first condition of individuality is independence and a unique way of
life that is not recognized in the attitude of the fundamentalists. Any different philosophy
and lifestyle is reprehensible and wrong, since it is a different belief. Any diversity and
pluralism in philosophy and one’s way of life is rejected (Salzman 2008, 322; Pataki 2008).
1.6
Homophonic character (imitation):
In fundamentalist groups, the social identity asso-
ciated with the movement, organization, and group is usually very strong, to the extent that
one of the various reasons for this lack of tolerance of deviation is that it undermines group
solidarity and conformity. This is why it blurs the distinction with people outside the group.
A homophonic character is always looking for the most practical model (Herriot 2009, 148,
150–153).
1.7
Dis-embeddedness of the family from the homeland:
Physical displacement of families
from their original homeland creates changes in the social and cultural origin of the family,
often creating problems for the family members due to the conditions and the social context.
On the other hand, globalization dis-embeds the family intellectually and culturally, and
even if the family is stationary, this dis-embeddedness occurs to its beliefs and traditions
thus weakening the cultural status of the family. The family can no longer live with the same
cultural assumptions in the city or metropolis, and this weakens the social identity of the
family members (Friedman 2000; Salzman 2008, 321).
1.8
Dis-embeddedness of the individual from the family:
Affected by the family and the
individuality of the person, collective identity faces conflicts when entering some new envi-
ronments such as the university. Entering such environments, the person can no longer hold
on to his previous values inherited from the family, which are influential in the formation of
collective identity. Accepting the new values, he gets into serious conflicts with his family’s
values (Kamrani 2010).
1.9
Threat and anxiety:
They are committed to defend the religion and religious beliefs
from any dissent, and consider
others
as threats to their beliefs. They believe that Iran’s
political system executes divine laws and paves the way for the advent of Imam
Mahdi
,
6
and
they assume themselves obliged to resist these threats. Additionally, the threat-resistance-
defense situation is important both socially and individually. In this regard, they abandon
many individual desires in a longing to be harmonized with the community and to strength-
en their collective identity (Herriot 2009, 23–24; Salzman 2008, 326).
1.10
Desire to replace:
Those who join fundamentalist organizations, by weakening their
former personality elements which is enabled by a dis-embeddedness of the family, will have
the opportunity to gain new elements of pride, confidence, hope, a sense of purpose and
value. This replacement is achieved by feeling close to the new sacred cause. A fundamen-
talist attitude and belonging to a fundamentalist social group replaces the sense of belonging
which was formerly found in the family (Hoffer 2006, 22).
2. Transition to certainty: construction of a coherent collective identity.
After a person joins one of the
religious fundamentalist organizations, there are consequences and implications of his/her
Razaghi et al.
9
membership and s/he experiences identity changes. We have categorized these consequences
and results into eight indices:
2.1
Sense of belonging and solidarity:
Joining a social group with a fundamentalist ideol-
ogy, which speaks from a position of absolute truth is backed by a political system with
financial, administrative, professional, and spiritual support. The fundamentalist forms a
coherent friendship group. Intellectual and mental conflicts are terminated. Joining the
group brings a sense of belonging and solidarity, which provides an integrated collective
identity (Salzman 2008).
2.2
Self-esteem and perseverance (self-control, sense of belonging and solidarity, sense of
competency):
Their ideological and systemic beliefs give certainty, clarity, meaning, and
purpose to their lives. Their beliefs create peace of mind and enhance self-esteem, making
them steadfast in their ideological positions. However, this confidence is not derived from a
person’s unique style of behavior or individual abilities; rather, it confirms the consistency
between the individuals and their group. This peace of mind is what the anxiety of moder-
nity, globalization, and individuality prevents or at least it would be difficult and contro-
versial to obtain it in the modern world (Herriot 2009; Hoffer 2006; Salzman 2008, 325).
2.3
Retrospectivity (back to the glorious past):
While fundamentalists talk about the glo-
rious past and denounce the status quo, their ideological construct is slightly different from
their past because they benefit from many modern tools to realize their ideas and, more
importantly, they never reject those human achievements that are in the service of their
beliefs (Herriot 2009, 81–82; Vorster 2008, 49).
2.4
Historical duty (deviation of history and trying to put it back on the right path):
Understanding the past, denouncing the status quo, resisting the enemy in all manifesta-
tions, and making a utopian future are the historical duties of fundamentalists. The political
system must undertake this duty and move the community towards a desirable community
for Imam
Mahdi
, or at least pave the way for his emergence. Fundamentalists are the
soldiers of this historical duty (Herriot 2009; Parel 2004, 2).
2.5
Duality and otherness (truth, under hostility by forces of evil):
Islamists divide the world
into two opposite poles: God and Satan, good and evil, right and wrong, true and false. This
duality helps them to persuade their followers to oppose those who are always thinking and
believing differently from them, or rather, different people are always against them and are a
constant threat to them and their belief system. That is why replacing the law of God by
secular teachings and politics is a devastating attack on their faith and beliefs (Herriot 2009,
2; Weinberg and Pedahzur 2004; Rabasa et al. 2010, 5).
2.6
Hate (fighting the forces of evil):
Hatred is the most accessible and comprehensive
unifying factor, which alienates the person from himself, makes him forgetful about his
happiness and future, and frees him of envy and sensual desires. According to Hofer (2006,
96–98), mass movements (including fundamentalism) can be formed without a belief in God,
but they never give up the belief in demons.
2.7
Being reactive (a firm faith and deep anger over the humiliation and deprivation derived
from globalization and modernity):
“Being reactive” is one of the most important distinctive
characteristics of fundamentalist movements towards other movements (Herriot 2009;
Marty 1998, 376). Religious fundamentalists believe that they are seriously threatened by
modernity and its secular consequences, and that Western countries are the manifestations
of that threat (Weinberg and Pedahzur 2004; Rabasa et al. 2010, 5).
2.8
Formation of collective identity (constructing an identity for the standardization of
individual behavior and social norms according to God’s commandments):
Religious
10
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
fundamentalists separate themselves from everyone else to show their superiority and dis-
tinct identity. This distinction seeking is not only to differentiate themselves but it is as part
of a narcissistic struggle to be considered unique and special (Pataki 2008, 30).
3. Mechanism of action of fundamentalist groups in members’ identification.
After joining religious
fundamentalist groups and constructing a collective identity based on fundamentalist ideolo-
gy, collective actions affect individual actions and cause people to act according to certain
mechanisms. The mechanism of action of fundamentalist groups in the construction of fun-
damentalists’ collective identity and behavior pattern after joining the group is based on a
long-term strategy and clear objectives, which will be addressed in the form of six categories:
3.1
Unified leadership (authoritative reference, the intermediary between man and God):
Hoffer (2006, 89–95) believes that leadership is the embodiment of the decisiveness and
commonality of all followers of a religion. Leadership has the pride and glory of power.
Complete surrender is a precondition to achieve unity and devotion, and probably there is
no other direct way to make it happen but induction and blind obedience. People with
empty and unstable lives seem more willing to be obedient to those who are self-sufficient
and self-confident (Hoffer 2006; Herriot 2009).
3.2
Authoritarianism (Accepting domination, aggression, and adherence):
The definition of
authoritarianism contains an element of hostility toward those who are outside the group,
which can show itself with a biased attitude towards others. As Herriot noted, not every
fundamentalist necessarily has an authoritarian and fundamentalist personality and not all
non-fundamentalist individuals are free from authoritarian personality traits. However,
what is clear is that authoritarianism is evident in fundamentalists’ belief systems and is
seen in the thought and practice of most fundamentalists (Herriot 2009; Hunsberger 1996,
201–220; Altemeyer 1988; Vorster 2008, 55).
3.3
Unity and organization (Militarism):
Unity is more reductive. A person’s individual
distinctions must be removed before they are absorbed into a collective environment. They
should be prevented from free choice and independent judgment. Many of the individual’s
talents and natural desires must be suppressed or weakened. All these are reductive actions.
In alliance with others, the person forgets his weaknesses and shortcomings and is proud of
his strengths. He has the sense of calm and confidence in the group, and other members of
the group are close to him like family members (Hoffer 2006).
3.4
Joint action (killing and being killed):
All mass movements consider actions to be
unifying. Conflicts that a mass movement seeks and provokes are not only to overthrow
their enemies, but also to uproot the individuality of their followers and unite them. Faith
organizes and equips the soul for action. Having the one and only truth, having no doubt in
its truth, having the feeling that one is supported by a mysterious force such as God, fate, or
the rule of history, believing that a man’s enemies are the epitome of evil and should be
eliminated, being proud of self-denial and sacrificing one’s self in the line of duty, are all
commendable requirements for cruel and decisive action (Hoffer 2006, 127).
3.5
Resistance identity (against pluralism, relativism, individualism, secularism, democracy,
human rights, and feminism):
This type of identity alarmed by different forces, particularly
the major components of globalization and modernity such as individuality, freedom, plu-
ralism, relativism, etc., acts as the shield of faith and religious-traditional beliefs and gives
immunity against any change or skeptical beliefs (Herriot 2009, Castells and Cardoso 2005).
3.6
Negation of individuality and individualist values (autonomy, freedom, self-reliance,
unity, joy, diversity, independence, and competition) and reliance on collective identity
: The
Razaghi et al.
11
previous categories discussed represent the fundamentalists’ strategy of actualizing their
views and show that they have devoted most of their attention and focus to defining,
rebuilding, and consolidating their collective identity. Wherever fundamentalists speak of
the “self” and the components of their individual identity, they refer to a “self” that has
accepted the legitimacy of the collectivist beliefs and beliefs of the fundamentalist organi-
zation as well as succumbs to these beliefs and beyond that they have no idea of themselves.
Therefore, they strongly emphasize the obedience to their leader and ideology. In their view,
individuality is a result of selfishness and ignorance and is legitimate only when it is defined
within the framework of collective identity.
Research methodology
This study was conducted using qualitative methods which allow us to consider a handful of
trends such as “new ambiguities,” the growth of individual “lifestyles and biographical
patterns,” and the dissolution of “old” social inequalities in new social environments,
sub-cultures, lifestyles, and ways of living. Looking at these trends creates a new sensitivity
toward the empirical study of issues (Flick 2009, 12).
This is the point, which is the focus of this research. Ontologically, epistemologically, and
in terms of life strategy, religious fundamentalists spent all their energy on strengthening
collective identity and unifying their lifestyle and worldview. They strongly resist pluralism,
which is the emergence of individuality and personal identities, and consider diversity of
lifestyle an error, perversion, or even a sin. In contrast, in modernity, there is increasing
individualism, which provides the context of the societal changes which fundamentalists are
reacting to.
Accordingly, it is apparently expected that the followers of fundamentalist attitudes
should have the same lifestyles and follow the same patterns in their views, opinions, and
life. They show similar actions and choices in different situations. However, in this article, it
will be shown that at least at the University of Guilan, which may inferred to the larger
Iranian community, this pattern of constructing similar identities and a consistent and
dominant collective identity is not formed as is expected by the ideology and mechanisms
of these groups; significant differences are observed among its members. These people face
many contradictions in the tension between collective identity and interests and their own
personal identity.
Accordingly, we shall follow a method that is able to probe the person’s innermost
personality layers and reveals the experiences and events that have influenced their life
and led them to join fundamentalist organizations. Quantitative methods are not able to
capture this. Therefore, we attempted to develop a daily and close relationship with these
students, to explore more about their life stories considering their membership in the student
groups. We formed these relationships over a nine-month period, at the end of which our
subjects engaged in self-disclosure, which is an important part of the information we sought.
The research strategy of this study is deductive. We have elaborated an eclectic theoret-
ical framework that logically seemed to be a coherent and convincing theoretical synthesis,
and then we have sought to assess this theoretical synthesis with empirical facts obtained
from a qualitative research on the members of two fundamentalist student organizations.
We used theoretical saturation to develop the conceptual framework of this research. In
other words, to analyze different aspects of the subject, there was no need for more concepts.
As a result of studying our sources, and their adaptation to interviews and empirical
12
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
observations, we have formulated a conceptual framework to guide our research and ana-
lyze the data.
Data collection method
To collect the data, we used “problem-centered interviews” and “participant observation”
methodologies. In input talks, efforts were made to avoid the initial weight derived from
knowing that it is an interview by greeting and speaking about scattered topics. When self-
disclosure occurred in the relationship between researcher and participant, we quietly got
into biographical questions. Without any detailed and clear explanation of the research
subject to the participants, and to prevent bias in the answers to questions, we went into
contextual information such as place of residence, family, high school period, and the time
before and after it. Depending on that, we asked which parts, what people, what periods of
life were more important for them and had more influence on them. We controlled the
dialogue to achieve the desired data.
The purpose of contextual data acquisition was to understand the collective identity,
family, ethnic, and religious situation of the person compared to his personal identity
before and after joining the student organization under study. After the acquisition of
introductory information, we probed the religious beliefs and political views of participants
and investigated their sensitivity to Islam, Shiism, Islamic government, and “the interna-
tional system” (a term that was often used by them). Sometimes, after one or several detailed
meetings where we engaged in dialogue with them, we assessed the person’s sensitivity
towards the issues above opposed to his convictions and considered his responses. In this
regard, we considered the determination and confidence of participants and investigated if
they were willing to contemplate and even revise their beliefs when facing different but
logical and friendly positions, or to confront them and to start to question and disagree
with them.
In the participant observation part, researchers participated in some ceremonies, gather-
ings, and meetings of the organizations involved. Notes were taken after each observation.
Target group and sample selection method
As mentioned earlier, the group we studied were the members of student
Basij
and
“
The lovers of Welayat
” of the University of Guilan. The reason for this choice was that
these two organizations had the characteristics of most religious fundamentalist groups in
terms of their structure, ideology, and purpose. The sampling method, in this study, was
“cumulative sampling.” This means that by conducting an interview with the head of the
main committees, we would be able to communicate with the other students in the groups.
After we gained their trust and established close and friendly relations at the stage called
self-disclosure, interviews were carried out. The purpose of self-disclosure is to share infor-
mation, views, positions, and personal experience, which the person might not otherwise
disclose.
In most cases, the interviewees have a common vision, and only the formations and
organizations which they belonged to varied. Student
Basij
is an organization with a military
structure that has a top-down hierarchy and division of labor, but “
the lovers of Welayat
”
has a structure based on religious content.
Razaghi et al.
13
The selection of interviewees was also based on the logic of obtaining “empirical saturation”
in qualitative studies. Empirical saturation means that after the twelfth interviewee, no other new
data were found that provided new information for researchers to analyze the research findings
or to confirm the conceptual framework of the research. So, to achieve the empirical saturation,
interviews continued until the fifteenth interviewee. In the next step, with more than eight months
spent on establishing close relationships with people and conducting frequent interviews, we
implemented interviews and categorized our observations. It should be noted that the existence
of time constraints, as well as the existence of a security-driven and sometimes pessimistic out-
look among some interviewees or potential interviewees, affected the research process.
Research findings
As a requirement of qualitative methods, the findings of this research has been based on
moving back and forth between theory and data—between theoretical literature on religious
fundamentalism and the data we collected. The findings of this field research are highly
consistent with what is suggested theoretically. In this section, we will present our findings in
connection with the theoretical literature.
In this study, it was observed that almost all the fifteen respondents have entered college
from very religious families, and only one of them had less religious or secular relatives
outside his family, which led him to have negative reactions against them. Both organiza-
tions have female and male members. However, mostly males (around two thirds) dominate
the organizations. We had a female colleague as an interviewer to talk to women because
they mostly avoid talking to males especially if they were not the member of Basij. They
were mostly undergraduates (eleven out of fifteen); the rest were masters students.
On the question of “giving meaning and purpose,” all respondents had a religious nar-
rative of their own families and their life experience, which made them feel useful and
rewarding. Their narratives of their beliefs included absolute, fundamental, and infallible
truth; they did not tolerate pluralism or different views and interpretations of Islam.
The holy book is the only true source of truth in the interviewees’ perspective, and any
other reference and source is verified in relation to it. They consider it to be defaced when
there are conflicts or differences with it. In their view, the holy book contains a clear and
comprehensive philosophy from birth to death to life after death, and every true Muslim
should organize his life accordingly.
Abdollah
:
I believe that our religion (Islam) is the superior and most complete religion and Shiism is the most
complete religion and we always tell the truth. But in Western countries with secular systems, since
they do not have any reference point and it is unclear who is right and who is wrong, they are
experiencing a kind of chaos and confusion.
Sadegh
:
Religion seems logical and answers all the questions I have, and complies with wisdom.
One aspect emphasized by participants was harmony with the group. The harmony starts
from the family and sometimes the relatives and reaches the school, university, the Islamic
14
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
community, and most importantly the respective group. This harmony is challenged
when participants are away from their home and family. This is when the university
and student dormitory strengthen students’ individualities and intensifies the feeling of
resistance against individualism. In all cases, interviewees considered the group and its
members as their best friends in college. In some cases, they mentioned that their problems
were solved by the members of their group that they received help and privileges in
these groups.
Abdollah
states this harmony and imitation as follows: “
I do believe that everyone in their
lives should have someone to rely on a leader. There are fourteen infallibles in Shiism which do
not exist in any other religion.
”
Hassan
talks about accountability and Islam’s emphasis on it, and says: “
If I could control
and manage my own behavior, it is better for my own character; accordingly my position gets
better in the community
.”
From this point on, we observed the emphasis on a sense of belonging and solidarity with
their respective groups as well as the members of the group as the best friends of a student;
they placed less importance on teachers, classes, classmates, and other scientific, artistic, and
literary groups. They talked with self-esteem and a sense of competence and self-
righteousness and had a completely different feeling than other students. In some cases,
they considered other students perverted, non-observant, and negligent. In this regard, they
mentioned the past where young people were faithful and honest, especially in the first years
of the revolution or the eight-year war between Iran and Iraq.
Jafar
states his sense of belonging to the group and positive feeling towards the other
members in this way:
I was a junior when I went to a mosque for a group prayer with my older brother for the first time.
My mother is very religious and she gave me the first mystical–religious book to read. My religious
tendency grew at the University of Guilan because I met religious people. They were the members of
Basij and the Islamic community and “the lovers of Welayat.” All of them were good but the
members of “the lovers of Welayat” were more sincere.
Participants talked about a firm belief that even religious people with religious views did not
have. In their view, modernity and globalization, which they mentioned in their own words
and with their own concepts (and sometimes indirectly the US and West were its symbols),
have caused deprivation and deviation.
Here, you could see that the mechanism that participants defined for their
actions
involved
the
six
indices
mentioned
above
(3.1
Unified
leadership,
3.2
Authoritarianism, 3.3 Unity and organization, 3.4 Joint action, 3.5 Resistance identity,
3.6 Negation of individuality and individualist values) in the theoretical literature. The
long-term strategy of having others who had different thoughts and ideology joining
them was their instruction. All of them supported a unified leadership, which originates
from the holy book, the prophet, and the imams of
Shiism
and extends to
Waliye Faghih
(Supreme Leader).
Accepting the domination of a unified leader and commitment to his beliefs, anger,
and aggression toward others who are different was evident in their speech and
actions. These groups were unified and organized in the same way, but still Basij students
were stronger in their commitment compared to the members of Moheban-e Welayat
community.
Razaghi et al.
15
In this regard,
Reza
says:
When we say the supreme leader is chosen by God, sometimes it is mistakenly perceived that God
directly determines the supreme leader but actually we do not mean that. It means that God says we
should refer to such a person at the time of Imam Mahdi’s absence. We must refer to a person who
is pious, righteous, jurist and politic.
However, what is striking is that the individuality caused by student life and the rejection of
this fundamentalist ideology among the majority of students, are the main obstacle for
fundamentalist groups to dominate the university atmosphere and students. Rejection of
this fundamentalist ideology among the majority of students and in public spaces does not
allow them as a small minority of students to dominate others. Symptoms of uncertainty
appeared, not in the correctness of their ideology but in imposing this theoretical fantasy on
the real world.
On the one hand, the inability to attract the majority of the students and to be effective in
the public space of the university and the society, sometimes pushed them to criticize their
partners, and the uncertainty about following existing practices and relying on the help of
these partners who are not active or firm believers, was expressed in their speech. On the
other hand, there were signs of growing individuality and instability in their collective
identity, especially in students who were in graduate or doctoral programs. In the case of
two or three members, there was a deep anger because many of the promises of the organ-
izers were not fulfilled, but they tried to console themselves by their individual knowledge
and abilities, and their individual pursuit of the group’s ideals and lofty goals but not within
the framework of their respective group.
Sajjad
warns that if our young people do not pay attention to issues of religious beliefs
and domestic and international political conditions, we will not win the conflict against the
West: “
If this does not happen, human beings will be destroyed. This is what is happening now
more than ever. We are literally being destroyed
.”
Sadegh
states the anxiety derived from these threats on two different levels, personal
and social:
I strongly believe that I will lose my faith and belief in the absence of a favorable social context
[personal level]. Without the filtering of pornographic sites, young people will be perverted [social
level]. If the government is neutral towards the beliefs of people, we cannot have much impact on
the international system and international relations.
Finally, if we consider the genuine relationship as a relation where external standards are
eroded and is only created for a reward that is obtained for the soul, based on the obser-
vations, we may say that most fundamentalists do not enjoy pure relationships with others
(Giddens 2006, 6) since all of their relationships are based on ideology. Even marriage is not
a direct relationship for them; they marry based on tradition, religion, belief, and ideology.
Overall, the research findings show that the theoretical literature can provide a good
analysis of why and how some students join fundamentalist organizations. Although
there are some differences among the participants, most of them join these organizations
through the same mechanisms. The outcomes and results of their tendency and membership
in both organizations of the student
Basij
and “
the lovers of Welayat
” are somewhat similar.
16
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
The difference is that some are more committed and adhere more to the values and norms of
the group, and some less.
It would appear that a college education and the individual experience of students as well
as the diversity of sources of knowledge at the university make it difficult to form the
collective identity in which these organizations are interested. Even if the collective identity
is formed, due to the diversity existing in the university and Iranian society, the fundamen-
talist students’ social practices are hardly aligned with the strategy and behavioral pattern of
these organizations. As far as we can tell, half of the participants have many internal
conflicts and lose their hope to have a significant impact on the other students and the
university as a whole at the end of their educational career.
Discussion and conclusion
This case study shows that many of the characteristic of fundamentalists holds true in some
Iranian student organizations and that these groups act based on the principles and mech-
anisms similar to other religious fundamentalist groups. In this section, we conduct a
final analysis of individual and contextual factors influencing people to join religious fun-
damentalist groups, regardless of political and cultural geography, and demonstrate how
these groups are trying to form individuals’ identities as well as create a collective identity in
accordance with the values of the group.
The intellectual foundation of fundamentalists lies in three ontological characteristics:
they believe in the absolute, fundamental, natural, and infallible truth, and that the holy
texts and religious leaders are the undisputed carriers of this truth. They also seek a single
philosophy for life and avoid any other peaceful way of life. In fact, with such views, they
lose any possibility for compromise with the other, and wherever they show tolerance,
their tolerance is of the kind that Zygmunt Bauman (1992, xxii) says, “they still consider
themselves legitimate and the different other falsehood, but since they see no context to
guide the perverted, negligent or guilty, they tolerate him as long as he can understand their
fundamentalist beliefs.”
They have conformist personalities on the one hand and are authoritarian on the other.
While they surrender to their religious leaders whose beliefs and opinions they adhere to,
when in a position of power, they are aggressive to the different other and try to guide or
dominate him and impose upon him their own beliefs. Belief in absolute truth and possess-
ing the truth through the holy book and religious leaders gives them self-esteem and com-
fort, and that is how many of their curiosities and skepticisms are answered. Anxiety can be
overcome only when the uncertainties have no opportunity to emerge. They wrap such
beliefs in an aura of sanctity in such a way that they refer to the early history of Islam
instead of attempting to convince others by logical reasoning. With a selective interpretation
of the events of that period, they emphasize that we must imitate the utopia of early Islam in
all areas and construct the correct society with regard to the social norms and values of
ancient Islam.
They believe that the historic duty of Islamic government is to restore and return its
history to the right track and their duty is to defend and support it to achieve that purpose
and consider any opposition or criticism of the effort an attempt to prevent the realization
of Islamic values. They do this to the extent that it gives the political system an aura of
sanctity. Any criticism of it is considered to be opposition against Islam. Therefore, they
divide the community into supporters and opponents of their ideology expanding this dual
Razaghi et al.
17
vision to all aspects of personal, social, and global relationships. They think they absolutely
have the right position and that the different others are evil, vicious, corrupt, and sinister
with no interest in the truth, no matter who they are and what believe. That is why they
perceive them as enemies who deserve hatred and hostility and who must be transformed
or excluded.
Such thinking requires a unified leadership and coherent organization so that no inter-
ruption can enter its beliefs. When this attitude is associated with a unified leadership and an
organization similar to the military forces, authoritarianism is the least that can be expected
from it. The identity that is gradually established in these people is the resistance against
alteration, especially when there is an opposition to their ideology which poses an alterna-
tive to it. Modernity and its cultural values are the biggest alternatives and competitors of
religious fundamentalism. However, fundamentalist groups want to benefit from all the
tools and products of modernity and also resist absolutely against all its values and tolerate
none of them. Beyond that, fundamentalists want the failure and annihilation of modernity
because according to their ideology, it is a culture that moves societies away from human
nature and what God has ordained.
Given that most of the participants are a minority in the community, they confess that
they are defensive while explaining their beliefs. They feel they have lost their status which
has the potential to impact all social, cultural, economic, and political structures based on
their ideological worldview in post-revolutionary Iran. Therefore, it can be said that the
participants have a defensive identity. They notice the criticisms in the community when
explaining their opinions, and sometimes without any question asked in this regard, they
seek to answer these doubts (in their own words).
The participants are caught in a paradoxical relationship between collective identity and
their individuality. They must adhere to their collective beliefs and when speaking of their
individuality, they define it within the framework of their religious, social, and family iden-
tity; they see no need for individual freedom in this regard. But in contrast, the development
in their education leads to development in their individuality, and this results in a constant
conflict between their collective identity and individuality. This often ends in suppressing
and ignoring their individuality based on their religious beliefs. However, it is very difficult
to establish a collective identity in the modern era, and their individuality overcomes many
aspects of their collective identity although without them consciously and deliberately will-
ing it. For this reason, as Bauman (1992, xxii) argued, their communities are imagined
communities too.
Perhaps these kinds of organizations are imagined communities which each of their
members joins with a different prospect, motivation, and conception. Joining these author-
itarian organizations creates a social and psychological structure that is very difficult for
them to leave. Even with the formation of aspects of individuality, due to its weakness and
freshness, there is no ability to lift themselves out of the abyss of totalitarian collective
identity. For this reason, their withdrawal often takes place after university in a silent
way, because withdrawal by criticism could impose a high cost.
However, for Iran, if we accept that religious fundamentalism is far from a widespread
social movement, it can be said that based on research findings (Herriot 2009; Weinberg and
Ami 2004; Rabasa and Stacie 2010, 5; Dawe 2015) religious fundamentalism in Iran is
mostly
a
personal
approach,
which
is
rooted
in
traditional-religious
families.
Nevertheless, due to diverse sources of knowledge in today’s Iranian society, religious beliefs
and traditional social norms cannot continue in the minds of youths and students who are
18
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
familiar with modern science. Signs of this issue can be seen in the debates between funda-
mentalist students and other non-fundamentalist ones, who can no longer offer their holy
texts or religious leaders as the sole and ultimate justification for their claims to others.
Faced with such debates, they have to practically accept that they should become familiar
with modern science.
To summarize, as we have argued, in the conflict between secular academic thought and
fundamentalist religious values which is supported organizationally, academic teachings
could overwhelm and give strength to the individual. In other words, there is an internal
conflict between secular academic teaching and religious values and beliefs which are sup-
ported officially. For the majority of university students, modern rational thinking has
advantages over the dogmatic teaching of religion, especially in the extremist fundamentalist
version. Accordingly, many college students avoid religious and political extremism and
even oppose the official system. Everything suggests that values such as individualism,
rationalism, freedom, and democracy are growing and expanding among students and fun-
damentalist groups may lose ground.
It can be concluded that individuals attracted to fundamentalist groups always live in
paradoxical conditions. These groups and organizations ask their members to be sympa-
thetic with their values, striving to keep them in the groups by giving them material priv-
ileges and support. In addition, with social changes, the observation of contradictions in the
fundamentalist groups, the presence of the Internet, and exposure to different data and
values, individuals’ mindsets and critical thinking abilities grow. Accordingly, individuality
is reinforced in these individuals so that in their personal lives, they demand behavioral
standards different from the formal values and norms of the groups and organizations.
Since one does not want to lose the privileges of being a member of a group and paying
the cost of changing their mindsets and behaviors, he/she must lead a double life.
Most of people will move away from these fundamentalist groups in the long run, but
those remaining in them to continue to enjoy the benefits of membership that lead into a
double life. That is, in private circles, family life, and communication with relatives and
acquaintances, they have different and sometimes conflicting standards with the values of
the fundamentalist groups, but in the workplace and in places where other members are
involved, they are sympathetic with the groups’ values such as styles of dress, behaviors, and
discourse. However, there are a small number of members of the fundamentalist groups
whose thoughts and behaviors are consistent with the groups’ values and standards and do
not have the intrinsic contradictions. The fact that people who are fully in tune with
the values and principles of the group are in the minority reflects the predominance of
individuality among people and the failure of the fundamentalist group to build a lasting
collective identity.
ORCID iD
Mohammad Razaghi
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0190-8419
Notes
1. The “Basij Resistance Force,” or the “Basij” (the Mobilization), which was later renamed the
“S
azm
an-e Basij-e Mostaz’afin” (The Organization for Mobilization of the Oppressed), was
formed on November 26, 1979 by the command of Ayatollah Khomeini, and it was legally
Razaghi et al.
19
recognized after the adoption of the Islamic Consultative Assembly in December 1979. During the
eight-year Iraq-Iran War (1980–1988), the Basij forces recruited and organized in all parts of soci-
ety. In 2008, with the appointment of the new Revolutionary Guards commander, the Basij joined
the provincial troops under a single command, directly linked to the Islamic Revolutionary Guards
Corps’s (IRGC) command and continued missions. On October 4, 2009, the name of the Basij was
changed from the “Basij Resistance Force” to the “S
azm
an-e Basij-e Mostaz’afin.” The Basij has
branches in different sectors of the society. Examples include Student Basij, Guilds Basij, Teacher
Basij, Faculty Basij, Basij of Engineers, Physicians Basij, Clerical Basij, and so on. The objectives of
the Basij are as follows:
1.
Realization of Ayatollah Khomeini’s order to form Hezbollah cores.
2.
Create the necessary abilities and readiness for defense in all people to defend the country.
3.
Establishing the necessary combat capabilities in forces capable of engaging in classical and
large-scale operations.
4.
Creating the necessary abilities in all people to help with disasters and unforeseen incidents.
5.
Assist the government in all constructing missions.
2. Students Basij is a student formation, which is, in fact, a part of cultural and students’ branch of
The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. Although this formation is a student one, it is directly
controlled and organized from outside the university. They exist in all state and even other non-
profit universities. They started a few years after the Islamic revolution. They also have variety of
religious, political, and organizing programs during a year.
3. The ideology of “
the Lovers of Welayat
” is similar to that of students Basij; the difference is that
its programs and type of organization are closer to religious groups than to political formations
and not directly guided by The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. However, many members of
the Lovers of Welayat are simultaneously members of the Basij. Off campus programs for the
Lovers of Welayat are more focused on promoting religious values in the city and helping deprived
villagers.
4. The number of Student Basij members at University of Guilan are between 100 and 200 out of
around 7000 students.
5. A few months after the fall of the Pahlavi regime, the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps was
established on April 22, 1979 under the command of Ayatollah Khomeini. According to Article 1 of
the Statute of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard, the purpose of this institution is: “Safeguarding the
Islamic Revolution of Iran and its achievements,” “Continuous endeavor to achieve divine aspira-
tions and expand the rule of law of God in accordance with the laws of the Islamic Republic of
Iran,” “Full reinforcement of the Islamic Republic’s defense base through cooperation with other
armed forces,” and “Military training and organization of popular forces.” The commander of the
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps is appointed by Iran’s Supreme Leader. The IRGC consists of
five forces: Ground Force, Aerospace Force, Navy, Quds Force, and Basij. In addition to working
with the army to protect the country’s independence and territorial integrity, the Revolutionary
Guard has several other missions of this kind:
•
The fight against the transportation of illegal weapons.
•
Collaboration with the police when needed for order and security.
•
Planning, organizing, managing, and executing the ideological, political, and military train-
ing of the members of the Basij in accordance with Islamic standards.
•
Collaborating with the entire country’s intelligence unit.
•
Participation in relief operations at times of disasters and incidents and providing relief,
educational, production, and construction services.
20
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
After the eight-year Iraq-Iran War (1980–1988), the Islamic Revolutionary Guards entered eco-
nomic activities of reconstruction due to war damage. This economic activity continues today and
has become much more extensive.
6. Mahdi is the Twelfth and last Imam of Shiite. He is believed to have been alive for one thousand
years and that he will come back at the end of history. Humanity is currently in the “age of
absence” which will be ended by his coming. He will make a world full of justice.
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Author biographies
Mohammad Razaghi
received an M.A. in social psychology and sociology of religion from
University of Guilan. He was an exchange student at the University of Applied Sciences in
Fulda, Germany (2010) and worked on a project comparing Mosque and Church Cultures.
He has translated two books from English to Persian; the first one is titled
Religious
Fundamentalism
written by Peter Herriot. His research focuses on the interaction of indi-
viduality with collective identity and how religion can construct collective identity.
Hassan Chavoshian
is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Sciences at
University of Guilan. He teaches research methods, sociology of religion, sociology of cul-
ture and the sociology of knowledge. He is interested in contemporary cultural changes,
methodological issues, and the dynamics of social identity. He has translated more than
twenty books from English to Persian including works by Max Weber, Pierre Bourdieu, and
Zygmunt Bauman. His latest article is titled “Representation of Masculinity and Femininity
on Iranian Television on IRIB TV2 Children’s Programs” published in the
Journal of
Women in Culture and Arts
(Vol. 11, 2019).
Hamid Ebadollahi-Chanzanagh
is an Associate Professor of Sociology in the Department of
Social Sciences at University of Guilan. His specialties are in social theory, the history of
thought in contemporary Iran, and the sociology of development. He is interested in history,
Razaghi et al.
23
collective memory, and identity in contemporary Iranian society. His latest article is
“Memory of Mirzakochak Khan in Collective Memory of Guilani People” published in
the
Iranian Journal of Anthropology Research (2019).
Kamran Rabiei
is an Assistant Professor of Sociology in the Department of Sociology at
Tarbiat Modares University in Iran. There he holds the Chair of the Sociology of Economic
Development with a focus on the Middle East. Before joining Tarbiat Modares University,
Rabiei taught several courses such as political sociology, the sociology of Islamic countries,
and Shiite anthropology at the University of Isfahan. Rabiei is an expert in the field of
state-society relations, social movements, and regional conflicts in the Middle East.
24
Critical Research on Religion 8(1)
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