Providing primary frequency control with residential scale
. . .
113
Fig. 8
Comparison of grid independence in self-consumption mode
and in self-consumption mode plus PFC. PFC provision potentially
reduces the grid independence factor, because the battery is reserved
for PFC in certain weeks of the year
during which the system is rarely used for self-consumption
operation (mainly winter). The main finding is, that owners
of large battery systems can greatly improve the economics
of their PV battery system. By contrast, smaller PV bat-
tery installations have smaller return for PFC applications
because the additional costs necessary for VPP communica-
tion are more difficult recovered with lower revenues from
the PFC market. This is in contrast to the situation where the
system is only used for self-consumption (baseline); in that
case larger systems become less economical because of their
higher capital expenditure. The revenues from PFC markets
may lead to favorable investment conditions in distributed
PV battery systems. However, the risk of falling PFC market
price during the long project duration is non-negligible and
must be better understood to give conclusive investment rec-
ommendations. Furthermore, a widespread adoption of the
VPP concept is limited by the maximum reserve capacity of
approximately
±
100 MW (for Switzerland).
The parallel operation of self-consumption and PFC is
feasible and may give additional flexibilities and potentially
larger revenues. However, there might be significant losses
in grid independence and self-consumption, which was most
likely the primary operating mode or use case of the system.
Depending on the system ownership, conflicts of interest may
arise between the end user and the VPP aggregator, as the
latter receives more flexibility and opportunities to realize
additional profits.
The threshold
N
max
, which defines the maximum, weekly
average cycle number for VPP to operate in PFC mode, has
been set to
N
max
=
4 for the purpose of this analysis. This
may be a reasonable choice, considering the battery is cycled
once per day under ideal conditions. For a particular week,
this would imply that the battery is in idle time if it is used
less than 4 out of 7 days. However, the proper value must be
discussed by repeating the techno-economic evaluation for
different values of
N
max
. It is clear that the grid independence
decreases with increasing
N
max
, therefore a pareto-optimal
choice may be found for
N
max
. This will be subject to future
investigations.
In this article, the system is sized in self-consumption
mode only. Revenues from PFC markets were completely
ignored in the sizing of the system. The system configuration
may change significantly towards larger battery capacities
by incorporating these PFC revenues in the sizing procedure
and provide larger grid independence for the end user, while
maintaining a positive NPV. This will be the focus of future
analysis.
Based on the large dataset which hypothetically could
form a VPP, a maximum reserve capacity of more than
±
50
MW could be generated. However, the maximum allowance
is
±
25 MW per bid. This indicates that either the size of the
VPP must be lowered or the dedicated storage and power
capacity per participant must be lowered while maintaining
the size of the VPP. The latter option allows for more local
control flexibility and reduces losses in terms of grid inde-
pendence. It is unlikely that virtual power plants of this size
(4232 participants) are in the near future realistic since only
6000 storage units have been sold in Germany in the year
2013 [
6
]. Note, the presented economic figures are indepen-
dent of the size and design of the VPP, since all revenues
from the reserve capacity markets are assigned based on the
individually reserved capacity per week.
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