Productive word formation models
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UZBEKISTAN STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY Course work PRODUCTIVE WORD FORMATION MODELS Done by:Charos Ibodullayeva Checked by:Dilfuza Kurbanova Table of Contents 1.Introduction 2. Theoratical part 2.1. Some Basic Terms 2.2. Word Formation Processes – Some Definitions 3. Stages of Establishing – Nonce Formation, Institutionalization, Lexicalization 4. Practical part.Primary Word Formation Processes
4.1.2. Suffixation 4.1.3. Infixation 4.2. Compounding 4.2.1. Compound Nouns 4.2.2. Compound Verbs 4.2.3. Compound Adjectives 4.2.4. Neo-classical Compounds 4.3. Conversion 4.3.1. Conversion as a Result of Word Formation 4.3.2. Conversion as a Syntactic Process 4.4. Back Formation 5. Blocking – Restrictions on Productivity 6. Conclusion 7. Bibliography 1. Introduction The drumper went on drumping until the drumperism lets him get drumpish. Every time we can form new words with the help of word formation processes. There are many different processes which lead to many different new words. But how can we form such new words? The sentence The drumper went on drumping until the drumperism lets him get drumpish consists of four new or unknown words. I formed these words with the help of a very productive word formation process, called 'derivation'. But what does 'productive' actually mean? Productive in the content of word formation processes means that these processes are responsible for the large part of neologisms (Kortmann 1999: 58). Productive may be also described as “a pattern, meaning that when occasion demands, the pattern may be used as a model for new items.” (Adams 1973: 197). Some processes are more productive than others. This research paper deals with the most productive word formation processes of the English language, namely 'derivation', which includes 'prefixation', 'suffixation' and 'infixation', 'compounding' and 'conversion'. The word formation process 'back formation' is regarded as a borderline case, i.e. it can be counted as a member of the most productive word formation processes or as a member of the so called secondary word formation processes (Schmid 2005: 87). Because of the relation between compounding, especially compound verbs, and back formation I will treat the process in this research paper too. After an introduction of some basic morphological terms as well as a definition of the term 'word formation' I will present the different stages a new formed word has to pass until it can be regarded as a member of the vocabulary because not every new formed word will become established. Afterwards, in the main part of this research paper, I will present these most productive word formation processes named above and give suitable examples in each case. Finally the term 'blocking' will be introduced, i.e. there are some words which just cannot be formed because there is already another word which carries the appropriate meaning and thus 'blocks' the new word (Schmid 2005: 117). In the conclusion I will give an outlook for the secondary word formation processes and a review of words which are included in the dictionary newly. 2.1. Some Basic Terms Morphology, an area of linguistics, dealing with the internal structure of word forms, can be divided into two main branches (Bauer 1983: 33). Word formation is the one branch of it. The result of word formation processes are always completely new words, also called 'lexemes'. A lexeme is more an abstract unit and is represented concretely by one or more different word forms depending on the grammatical context (Carstairs-McCarthy 2002: 144). Thus look, looks, looking and looked are different word forms of the lexeme look. The other branch of morphology, dealing with the processes which result in the different word forms of the same lexeme, is called 'inflectional morphology' (Bloehdorn, 2005). But I will not deal with inflectional morphology as a topic in this research paper. The basic unit of morphology is the 'morpheme', the minimal meaningful unit of language (Kortmann 1999: 49). Morphemes are divided into free and bound morphemes, that is, if they can stand on its own as a word or not (Carstairs-McCarthy 2002: 143). Bound morphemes form the group of 'affixes'. If an affix precedes a free morpheme it is called a 'prefix', if it follows the free morpheme it is a 'suffix'. Affixes are important especially for the word formation process derivation (section 4.1.). Another differentiation exists between 'lexical' and 'functional morphemes' but this is not relevant to the field of word formation I deal with in this research paper. 2.2. Word Formation Processes – Some Definitions
3. Stages of Establishing – Nonce Formation, Institutionalization, Lexicalization Although lexicalization & institutionalization (L & I) are central and pervasive phenomena in the lexicon of all languages, these processes were neglected for a long time in accounts of word-formation (WF). They must necessarily be considered from an onomasiological perspective. Here, previous relevant research and terminology are reviewed. A number of definitions are compared and both notions are extended and refined. The results of L & I are gradual phenomena. They depend on regional, social and other varieties (registers) of a language. Formal, semantic and extralinguistic developments are distinguished. 4. Primary word formations In morphology, derivation is the process of creating a new word out of an old word, usually by adding a prefix or a suffix. The word comes from the Latin, "to draw off," and its adjectival form is derivational.Linguist Geert Booij, in "The Grammar of Words," notes that one criterion for distinguishing derivation and inflection "is that derivation may feed inflection, but not vice versa. Derivation applies to the stem-forms of words, without their inflectional endings, and creates new, more complex stems to which inflectional rules can be applied.The derivational change that takes place without the addition of a bound morpheme (such as the use of the noun impact as a verb) is called zero derivation or conversion. Examples and Observations "Derivational morphology studies the principles governing the construction of new words, without reference to the specific grammatical role a word might play in a sentence. In the formation of drinkable from drink, or disinfect from infect, for example, we see the formation of new words, each with its own grammatical properties." – David Crystal, "How Language Works." Overlook Press, 2005 Derivation vs. Inflection Morphology may be divided into derivation—rules that form a new word out of old words, like duckfeathers and unkissable—and inflection—rules that modify a word to fit its role in a sentence, what language teachers call conjugation and declension." – Steven Pinker, "Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language." Basic Books, 1999 "The distinction between inflectional morphology and derivational morphology is an ancient one. Fundamentally, it is a matter of the means used to create new lexemes (derivational affixes among o2y well in English—albeit with certain problematical cases which do not invalidate the fundamental notion—the distinction is not helpful to us in understanding any other aspects of the morphology of English. The classification might be useful in terms of typology, but does not throw much light on the behavior of English morphological processes." – Laurie Bauer, Rochelle Lieber, and Ingo Plag, The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology. Oxford University Press, 2013 Derivation, Compounding, and Productivity
"Morphological patterns that can be systematically extended are called productive. The derivation of nouns ending in -er from verbs is productive in English, but the derivation of nouns in -th from adjectives is not: it is hard to expand the set of words of this type such as depth, health, length, strength, and wealth. Marchand (1969: 349) has observed some occasional coinings like coolth (after warmth) but notes that such word coinings are often jocular, and hence do not represent a productive pattern. If we want to coin a new English noun on the basis of an adjective, we have to use -ness or -ity instead." – Geert Booij, "The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology." Oxford University Press, 2005 Changes to Meaning and Word Class: Prefixes and Suffixes "Derivational prefixes do not normally alter the word class of the base word; that is, a prefix is added to a noun to form a new noun with a different meaning: Derivational suffixes, on the other hand, usually change both the meaning and the word class; that is, a suffix is often added to a verb or adjective to form a new noun with a different meaning: patient: outpatient group: subgroup trial: retrial adjective - dark: darkness verb - agree: agreement noun - friend: friendship" – Douglas Biber, Susan Conrad, and Geoffrey Leech, "Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English." Longman, 2002 In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes. Affixation is the linguistic process that speakers use to form different words by adding morphemes at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation) or the end (suffixation) of words.affix, a grammatical element that is combined with a word, stem, or phrase to produce derived or inflected forms. There are three main types of affixes: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. A prefix occurs at the beginning of a word or stem (sub-mit, pre-determine, un-willing); a suffix at the end (wonder-ful, depend-ent, act-ion); and an infix occurs in the middle. English has no infixes, but they are found in American Indian languages, Greek, Tagalog, and elsewhere. An example from Tagalog is the alteration of the form sulat, “a writing,” to the form sinulat, “that which was written,” through the addition of an infix, -in-. English inflectional suffixes are illustrated by the -s of “cats,” the -er of “longer,” and the -ed of “asked.” A circumfix consists of a prefix and a suffix that together produce a derived or inflected form, as in the English word enlighten. 4.Compounding In English grammar, compounding is the process of combining two words (free morphemes) to create a new word (commonly a noun, verb, or adjective). Also called composition, it is from the Latin for "put together".Compounds are written sometimes as one word (sunglasses), sometimes as two hyphenated words (life-threatening), and sometimes as two separate words (football stadium). Compounding is the most common type of word-formation in English. Types of Compounds Compounding exists in several different forms and parts of speech, including the following: Compound Adjective Compound Adverb Compound Noun Compound Tense Compound Verb Exocentric Compound Rhyming Compound Root Compound and Synthetic Compound Suspended Compound Examples and Observations "Compounds are not limited to two words, as shown by examples such as bathroom towel-rack and community center finance committee. Indeed, the process of compounding seems unlimited in English: starting with a word like sailboat, we can easily construct the compound sailboat rigging, from which we can, in turn, create sailboat rigging design, sailboat rigging design training, sailboat rigging design training institute, and so on."(Adrian Akmajian et al., "Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication". MIT Press, 2001) Trammell was, Hollenbeck said, 'just a loud-mouthed backslapping small-town handshaker who's got a job much too big for him.'”(Loren Ghiglione, "CBS's Don Hollenbeck". Columbia University Press, 2008) Buffy: No actual witches in your witch group? Willow: No. Bunch of wannablessedbes. You know, nowadays every girl with a henna tattoo and a spice rack thinks she's a sister to the dark ones."(Sarah Michelle Gellar and Alyson Hannigan in "Hush." "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", 1999) Stress Test "Typically a compound begins as a kind of cliché, two words that are frequently found together, as are air cargo or light colored. If the association persists, the two words often turn into a compound, sometimes with a meaning that is simply the sum of the parts (light switch), sometimes with some sort of figurative new sense (moonshine). The semantic relationships of the parts can be of all kinds: a window cleaner cleans windows, but a vacuum cleaner does not clean vacuums. We can be sure we have a compound when the primary stress moves forward; normally a modifier will be less heavily stressed than the word it modifies, but in compounds, the first element is always more heavily stressed." (Kenneth G. Wilson, "The Columbia Guide to Standard American English". Columbia University Press, 1993) English orthography is not consistent in representing compounds, which are sometimes written as single words, sometimes with an intervening hyphen, and sometimes as separate words. In terms of pronunciation, however, there is an important generalization to be made. In particular, adjective-noun compounds are characterized by a more prominent stress on their first component... "A second distinguishing feature of compounds in English is that tense and plural markers cannot typically be attached to the first element, although they can be added to the compound as a whole. (There are some exceptions, however, such as passers-by and parks supervisor.)" (William O'Grady, J. Archibald, M. Aronoff, and J. Rees-Miller, "Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction". Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001) Plurals of Compounds
"The following two compounds are exceptional in taking the inflection on the first element: passer-by/passers-by listener-in/listeners-in "A few compounds ending in -ful usually take the plural inflection on the last element, but have a less common plural with the inflection on the first element: mouthful/mouthfuls or mouthsful spoonful/spoonfuls or spoonsful "Compounds ending in -in-law allow the plural either on the first element or (informally) on the last element: sister-in-law/sisters-in-law or sister-in-laws" (Sidney Greenbaum, "Oxford English Grammar". Oxford University Press, 1996 Compounds are frequently collected together in a section or group of sections at or near the end of an entry. They are followed by a quotation paragraph in which examples of each compound are presented in alphabetical order of the compound. Some major compounds are entered as headwords in their own right. . . . Clearly, the size of the dictionary records exceeds by far the vocabulary of an individual speaker." (Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, "English Words." "The Handbook of English Linguistics", ed. by Bas Aarts and April McMahon. Blackwell, 2006) Compounding in Shakespeare's King Lear "Shakespeare seized upon the inherent creative energies of English compounding and transformed them into art. Examples abound throughout his oeuvre, but "King Lear" shines an especially bright spotlight on his combinatorial craft. . . . "First, we behold Lear’s 'compounding' rage. He agonizes over one daughter’s 'sharp-toothed unkindness' and wills the 'fen-sucked fogs' to foul her. After another daughter also repudiates him, Lear offers his submission to 'hot-blooded France' and invokes the 'Thunder-bearer,' 'high-judging Jove.' . . . "Next, we learn of nature’s 'compounding' wildness. A gentleman reports that a raving Lear is out roving a desolate, storm-struck heath, where he strives 'in his little world of man to out-scorn/The to-and-fro-conflicting wind and rain' from which even the 'cub-drawn bear' and 'belly-pinched wolf' seek shelter. Lear is only accompanied by his loyal fool, 'who labors to out-jest/ His heart-struck injuries.' .
Conversion Conversion is the word formation process in which a word of one grammatical form becomes a word of another grammatical form without any changes to spelling or pronunciation. For example, the noun email appeared in English before the verb: a decade ago I would have sent you an email (noun) whereas now I can either send you an email (noun) or simply email (verb) you. The original noun email experienced conversion, thus resulting in the new verb email. Conversion is also referred to as zero derivation or null derivation with the assumption that the formal change between words results in the addition of an invisible morpheme. However, many linguistics argue for a clear distinction between the word formation processes of derivation and conversion. Noun to Verb Conversion The most productive form of conversion in English is noun to verb conversion. The following list provides examples of verbs converted from nouns: Noun – Verb access – to access bottle – to bottle can – to can closet – to closet email – to email eye – to eye fiddle – to fiddle fool – to fool Google – to google host – to host knife – to knife microwave – to microwave name – to name pocket – to pocket salt – to salt shape – to shape ship – to ship spear – to spear torch – to torch verb – to verb For example: My grandmother bottled (verb) the juice and canned (verb) the pickles. My grandmother put the juice in a bottle (noun) and the pickles in a can (noun). She microwaved (verb) her lunch. She heated her lunch in the microwave (noun). The doctor eyed (verb) my swollen eye (noun). Noun to verb conversion is also referred to as verbification or verbing, as humorously discussed by Calvin and Hobbes. Verb to Noun Conversion Another productive form of conversion in English is verb to noun conversion. The following list provides examples of nouns converted from verbs: Verb – Noun to alert – alert to attack – attack to call – call to clone – clone to command – command to cover – cover to cry – cry to experience – experience to fear – fear to feel – feel to hope – hope to increase – increase to judge – judge to laugh – laugh to rise – rise to run – run to sleep – sleep to start – start to turn – turn to visit – visit For example: The enemy attacked (verb) before an alert (noun) could be sounded. Sometimes one just needs a good cry (noun). The baby cried (verb) all night. We need to increase (verb) our productivity to see an increase (noun) in profits. Verb to noun conversion is also referred to as nominalization. Other Conversions.Conversion also occurs, although less frequently, to and from other grammatical forms. For example: adjective to verb: green → to green (to make environmentally friendly) preposition to noun: up, down → the ups and downs of life conjunction to noun: if, and, but → no ifs, ands, or buts interjection to noun: ho ho ho → I love the ho ho hos of Christmastime. Back formation In linguistics, back-formation is the process of forming a new word (a neologism) by removing actual or supposed affixes from another word. Put simply, a back-formation is a shortened word (such as edit) created from a longer word (editor). Verb: back-form (which is itself a back-formation). Also called back-derivation.The term back-formation was coined by Scottish lexicographer James Murray, the primary editor of the Oxford English Dictionary from 1879 until 1915. As Huddleston and Pullum have noted, "There is nothing in the forms themselves that enables one to distinguish between affixation and back-formation: it's a matter of historical formation of words rather than of their structure" (A Student's Introduction To English Grammar, 2005). Pronunciation: BAK for-MAY-shun Examples and Observations singular noun pea from the older English plural pease the verb burgle from the older English noun burglar the verb diagnose from the older English noun diagnosis "He spoke with a certain what-is-it in his voice, and I could see that, if not actually disgruntled, he was far from being gruntled, so I tactfully changed the subject." (P.G. Wodehouse, The Code of the Woosters, 1938) "Here I was maybe forty minutes ago, sort of claustrophobed in the gap between the kickass movie world where Lila dumps the guy with the smarmy mustache and the obvious one where it just keeps getting later."(Daniel Handler, Adverbs. Ecco, 2006) Usage "[B]ack-formations are objectionable when they are merely needless variations of already existing verbs: back-formed verb - ordinary verb *administrate - administer *cohabitate - cohabit *delimitate - delimit *interpretate - interpret *orientate - orient *registrate - register *remediate - remedy *revolute - revolt *solicitate-solicit Many back-formations never gain real legitimacy (e.g., *elocute, *enthuse), some are aborted early in their existence (e.g., *ebullit, *evolute), and still others are of questionable vigor (e.g., aggress, attrit, effulge, evanesce, frivol). Blocking- restrictions on productivity In linguistics, blocking refers to the morphological phenomenon in which a possible form for a word cannot surface because it is "blocked" by another form whose features are the most appropriate to the surface form's environment.[1] More basically, it may also be construed as the "non-occurrence of one form due to the simple existence of another."Word formation employs processes such as the plural marker in English s or es (e.g. dog and dogs or wish and wishes). This plural marker is not, however, acceptable on the word child (as in *childs), because it is "blocked" by the presence of the competing form children, which in this case inherits features from an older morphological process.Blocking may also prevent the formation of words with existing synonyms, particularly if the blocked form is morphologically complex and the existing synonym is morphologically simple, e.g. *stealer which is blocked by the existing simple form thief.One possible approach to blocking effects is that of Distributed Morphology, which asserts that semantic and syntactic features create slots or cells in which items can appear. Blocking happens when one cell is engaged by one form as opposed to another. Blocking has been explained along two primary dimensions: the size of the blocking object, and the existence of ungrammatical forms. Conclusion. Now we know that Word-Formation Processes are the methods in which words are formed by deploying different types of rules. We can create new words by following the above word-formation methods. We need to do one thing: we have to follow the fundamental rules or processes of word-formation.In the past, the majority of studies of word-formation or word-formation processes have not distinguished between productive processes and lexicalized material. While such studies provide a wealth of extremely valuable data, it has been suggested here that the only realistic way of gaining a proper understanding of the way in which word-formation works is by ignoring lexicalized forms and concentrating on productive processes. Those scholars who have distinguished between productive and non-productive formations have usually taken the distinction no further. It has been shown that there is a vast number of factors, not all of them linguistic, which can limit productivity, and that productivity must be viewed as a cline, with some processes being more or less productive than other processes. Some of the theoretical linguistic factors involved in wordformation have been discussed, and it has been shown how lexicalization and productivity affect the syntactic and phonological descriptions of word-formation that have been proposed in the literature. An outline of the possibilities that are, or have been, available in English word-formation was given, showing just how wide a range of patterns can be found. Bibliography. Bauer Laurie, 1993, English Word-formation, “Cambridge textbooks in Linguistics”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bauer Laurie, Huddleston Rodney & Pullum Geoffrey, 2002, “Lexical word-formation”, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, Chapter 19, 1621-1722. Burridge Kate & Bergs Alexander, 2016, Understanding language change, London/New York: Routledge.DOI :10.4324/9781315463018 Brinton Laurel J. & Traugott Elizabeth C., 2006 (2005), Lexicalization and Language Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.DOI : 10.1017/CBO9780511615962 Bybee Joan, 1985, Morphology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins.DOI : 10.1075/tsl.9 Dinca Daniela, 2011, « La néologie et ses mécanismes de création lexicale », Typologie des emprunts lexicaux français en roumain. Fondements théoriques, dynamique et catégorisation sémantique, Craiova : Editura Universitaria. Durkin Philip, 2006, “Lexical Borrowing in Present-Day English: A Preliminary investigation based on the Oxford English Dictionary”, in Kölligan Daniel & Sen Ranjan (eds.), Oxford University working papers in linguistics, philology, & phonetics n° 11, 26‑42:http://www.ling-phil.ox.ac.uk/files/owp2006.pdf Durkin Philip, 2014, Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.DOI :10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199574995.001.0001 Durkin Philip, 2014, “Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English”, International Journal of Lexicography n° 27(4), 457‑466. Eluerd Roland, 2000, La lexicologie, ‘Que-sais-je n°3548’, Paris : Presses Universitaires de France. Fischer Roswitha, 1998, Lexical Change in Present-Day English: A corpus-based study of the motivation, institutionalization, and productivity of creative neologisms, Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Gaudin François & Guespin Louis, 2000, Initiation à la lexicologie française. De la néologie aux dictionnaires, ‘Champs linguistiques’, Duculot - De Boeck. Gévaudan Paul & Koch Peter, 2010, « Sémantique cognitive echangement lexical », Grandes voies et chemins de traverse de la sémantique cognitive, Mémoire de la société de linguistique de Paris, nouvelle série, tome XVII, Peeters, 103‑145. Guilbert Louis, 1973, « Théorie du néologisme », Cahiers de l’association internationale des études françaises, n° 25, 9‑29.DOI : 10.3406/caief.1973.1020 Guilbert Louis (ed.), 1974, Langages, Vol. 36: “La néologie lexicale”. Halliday M.A.K., 2004, Lexicology and Corpus Linguistics: an Introduction, London – New York: Continuum. Appendixes Appendix 2. Appendix 3. Appendix 4. Download 485,5 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham:
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