Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

Appendices

Appendix A is an introduction to the constructional-typological notation used particularly in chapters 4 and 7, and lists the abbreviations used in this notation. Appendix B contains examples from all sample languages, in alphabetical order. These examples are presented in addition to those discussed throughout the chapters. At the end of each language section, a table with constructional-typological notation for the language in question is presented (see chapter 4). In this table, the attested overlaps at the root, lexeme, and construction levels are also given for each language described. The purpose of appendix B is twofold. Firstly, in the main text, I sometimes refer to examples that are slightly outside the scope of the discussion. These examples are found in appendix B. Secondly, I have deemed it very important that the analysis should be as transparent as possible, especially in the use of the constructional-typological method. Therefore, examples, constructional- typological notation, and encoding overlaps for each sample language have been provided together in appendix B for the benefit of the reader.

Part I.

Background and methodology

2. Towards a framework for adverbs

   1. Introduction

Adverb is often used as a generic term for leftover items that do not appear to belong elsewhere. Syntactically, adverbs are found on several different levels. Semantically, they can be divided into any number of subtypes, and such classifications can be made in a variety of ways. Adverbs are often given a definition that is based on exclusion: they are modifiers of everything except for nouns (Schachter & Shopen 2007: 20). This dissertation concerns itself primarily with adverbs that modify verbs, or act as modifiers within predi- cating expressions. The term adverb here refers to single-word adverbs, whereas adverbial refers to items with corresponding meaning and function in the form of more complex constructions. As background, a general introduction to adverbs is given (section 2.2). This is followed by a description of a number of theoretically oriented approaches to pri- marily verb-modifying adverbs (section 2.3). These accounts have been chosen based on the fact that they make important contributions to the discussion of problems surrounding adverbs. Prior typological studies of adverbs are then discussed (section 2.4). Following this, I discuss other phenomena that are connected to adverbs in different ways (section 2.5). Sections 2.2–2.5 all serve as an introduction and a survey to existing approaches to adverbs, even though some of them have a different main focus (e.g. depictives and resultatives, cf. section 2.5.2). In addition, I apply the two approaches of Dixon (1982 [1977]) and Croft (1991, 2001, 2003), which are not originally concerned with adverbs, to adverbial modification. Thereby, this chapter is not only a theoretical background, but brings together different existing approaches to adverbs with contributions that need to be expanded in order to be useful for accounting for adverbs, as summarized in section 2.6.

2.