Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

ch`O

be.sweet

`E
part
ve
nmlz/rel
mámoš^¯i
mango
attr

In pred

‘a sweet mango’
and adv, the Stative Verb and the particle `E are used by themselves with

the Verb. The selection of Verbs in pred is limited to “a small set of highly abstract verbs” (1973: 286). This appears to be a case between pred and adv on the level of the construction (see section 7.3.2).
(6.40) Lahu (Sino-Tibetan) (Matisoff 1973: 287) [attr pred adv]

yˆO
he
ve
part
úkhEmu
hair
ší

be.yellow

`E
part
c`O
be.there
ve
part
yò
decl
pred/adv

‘He had blond hair. (lit. His hair was there yellow(ly).’
Clear cases of Stative Verbs in adv appear to be quite rare. One example is provided in (6.41).
(6.41) Lahu (Sino-Tibetan) (Matisoff 1973: 287) [attr pred adv]

ám^¯ij^¯1P
sparks
ní

be.red

`E
part
tòP
burn
ve
part
adv

‘The sparks burned red(ly).’
The Lahu Stative Verbs that are able to occur in attr, total overlap on the lexeme level.


pred, and adv instantiate a

Nuu-chah-nulth (Wakashan) has Stative Verbs with a clitic or inflectional morpheme (depending on language description – note that this also affects how the examples are writ- ten) indicating person, number, and mood in attr, pred, and adv. attr is illustrated in (6.42).
(6.42) Nuu-chah-nulth (Wakashan) (Davidson 2002: 128) [attr pred adv]

PiPi;x_. ^wPi

big.inD.3sg

´qidi;L
dog
x_. u;
dem
attr

‘That is a big dog.’

Compared to the
pred
examples in (6.43), it is not clear how the two functions are

distinguished. This is unclear also in the language description (cf. Davidson 2002).
(6.43) Nuu-chah-nulth (Wakashan) (Swadesh 1939: 446) [attr pred adv]

Pi;h-ma

large-3sg.inD

‘The man is big.’
qo’Pas-Pi
man-def
pred

In adv, the same Stative Verbs can be used, as illustrated in (6.44).

(6.44) Nuu-chah-nulth (Wakashan) (Nakayama 2001: 113) [attr pred adv]

Pi:h^w-’aX-’at-qu:s
greatly-tel-shift-cond.1sg
Pu-’a:luk-’at
it-looking.after-shift
adv

‘They looked after me very well.’
The Stative Verb in (6.44) is the same as in (6.42) and (6.43), although the use in adv yields a certain meaning shift. Accordingly, this is not the most appropriate example, but is the only one available as an instance of how Nuu-chah-nulth Stative Verbs can be used in adv.

Summary of languages with [attr preD aDv] lexeme overlap

Most of the languages with an overlap of attr, pred, and adv on the lexeme level have general modifiers in these functions. General modifiers have been exemplified extensively, in order to illustrate the variation found among this class of lexemes cross-linguistically. Sometimes general modifiers are the main modifier type of a language; in other cases, they are found alongside adjectives and/or adverbs. Moreover, the number of general modifiers varies from language to language. Yet other languages have stative verbs in their [attr pred adv] overlap. Also in these cases, adjectives and adverbs may be attested in some of the functions, in addition to the stative verbs. All languages in the sample that have an [attr pred adv] overlap on the lexeme level are listed in table 6.6 and plotted on the map in figure 6.4. For each language, the two rightmost table columns indicate whether the language has adjectives and adverbs in addition to having general modifiers or stative verbs. When languages have general modifiers, it appears to be possible for them to have any other modifier types (adjectives and/or adverbs) as well. In the case of languages with stative verbs in the total overlap of all three functions, it is clear that if they have a group of simple modifier lexemes, these are adverbs. Swahili and Cavineña are included in the table under the heading Other, since certain Swahili Nouns may be used for all three functions without a change of class marker, and Cavineña has da-adjectives (cf. section 3.3.1) in this overlap (see appendix B for examples).
A language where the three functions are completely unrelated ob the lexeme level, if one exists, is yet to be found.

6.4.5. Summary of lexeme level overlap

All sample languages have some kind of overlap of lexemes used in the attr, pred, and adv functions. The overlap with the most numerous members is [attr pred], which is attested in almost two thirds of the languages. For languages that have adjectives, this is expected, since such a class unites attr and pred on the level of the lexeme. Adjectives are also the most common lexeme type found in the overlap, although we also find cases where adjectives cannot be distinguished from nouns, as well as stative verbs. The second

most common overlap is [attr
pred
adv], which occurs in over half of the sample

languages. Here, the term general modifier was introduced for those simple lexemes that are used in all three functions. General modifiers show diverse patterns cross-linguistically.

6. Results II: Overlaps at the root, form, and lexeme levels
Table 6.6. Languages with [attr pred adv] lexeme overlap

Language	Other modifiers	Language	Other modifiers
general modifiers	adjectives adverbs	stative verbs	adjectives adverbs
Abau (Sepik)		Abkhaz (Northwest Caucasian)
Basque (isolate)		Ainu (isolate)
Bora (Witotoan)		Cuicatec (Otomanguean)
Cherokee (Iroquian)		Jamul Tiipay (Cochimi-Yuman)
Dutch (Indo-European)		Kambera (Austronesian)
Ewe (Niger-Congo)		Kalaallisut (Eskimo-Aleut)
Hdi (Afro-Asiatic)		Koasati (Muskogean)
Hup (Nadahup)		Koyra Chiini (Songhay)
Kilivila (Austronesian)		Lahu (Sino-Tibetan)
Lezgian (Nakh-Daghestanian)		Nuu-chah-nulth (Wakashan)
Maltese (Afro-Asiatic)		Slave (Athapaskan-Eyak-Tlingit)
Mapudungun (Auracanian)
Marathi (Indo-European) Mian (Nuclear Trans New Guinea)		Other Cavineña (Tacanan)^10
Pirahã		Swahili (Atlantic-Congo)
Sahaptin (Sahaptian)
Sango (Atlantic-Congo)
Turkish (Turkic)
Yagua (Peba-Yagua)
Yankuntjatjara (Pama-Nyungan)

Cavineña (Tacanan) has da-adjectives (see appendix B) in all three functions (Guillaume 2008: 357), in which the da- suffix is empty. These Adjectives could potentially be classified as general modifiers, but I refrain from doing so, since it is unclear to what extent they are lexicalized.

122

5. 
   Conclusion
   

overlap no overlap

Figure 6.4. Languages with [attr pred adv] lexeme overlap


In certain languages, they make up the main modifier class. In others, they are found alongside adjectives (and then often treated in grammars as a subclass thereof) and/or adverbs. In yet others, they are only attested in one or a few individual lexemes. Stative verbs also occur in the overlap of all three functions. On a much smaller scale, only six languages were found to have an overlap of the pred and adv functions. Although these are few, they are unrelated and geographically distant from each other. Importantly, these results demonstrate that it is possible for pred and adv to be lexicalized together. Mapudungun is the only language displaying an overlap of attr and adv. However, the lexeme used in these functions is not unrelated to the one used in pred – Mapudungun has a root overlap of all three functions (see table 6.3). Accordingly, it appears to be highly unlikely for pred to have a lexeme without any connection to either attr or adv. In conclusion, the encoding on the level of the lexeme primarily unites the attr and pred functions. Against the background of adjectives as a class of lexemes that takes the attr and pred functions, this is not surprising – the majority of [attr pred] overlaps are also instantiated by adjectives. The lexeme overlap of all functions is also stable, especially as instantiated by general modifiers. Finally, the encoding of the pred and adv functions are united to a much lesser extent on the level of the lexeme. However, this overlap is attested and is stable enough not to be an exception. Accordingly, it is possible for the same lexemes to be used exclusively in pred and adv. This points to the fact that the two functions are related.