Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

Phenomena related to adverbs

This section describes phenomena that are related to adverbs, and that are therefore to different extents and in various ways, relevant to the discussion. First, adjectives are discussed in section 2.5.1, primarily based on Dixon (1982 [1977]). Adjectives are particularly relevant to the present study, for two reasons. Firstly, adverbs are here regarded as parallel to adjectives in their functions as modifiers. Secondly, one aim of this thesis is to compare the encoding of adverbs to that of (attributive and predicative) adjectives. In section 2.5.2, depictives and resultatives are described. These construction types are conceptually related to adverbials, and their encoding often coincides. Finally, verbal constructions in adverbial function in the form of converbs will be discussed in section 2.5.3.

1. Adjectives

Adjectives have been extensively studied within typology over the past few decades (Dixon 1982 [1977]; Wetzer 1996; Stassen 1997; Dixon & Aikhenvald 2004). In his highly influ-


ential study on adjectives, Dixon (1982 [1977]) introduced semantic types based on the recurring semantic content of adjective classes across languages. This idea of semantic types also serves as a basis for the typological approach to parts of speech advocated by Croft (1991; 2001; 2003, cf. section 2.3.4 above). Dixon (1982 [1977]: 12-13) argues that all lexical items found in specific languages can be divided into semantic types that

are “probably linguistic universals”, such as
motion
(e.g. go),
kin
(e.g. uncle, son),

dimension (large, and deep). These can be compared to the more general semantic
types objects, actions, and properties within Croft’s approach, as described in section

4. 
   above. Dixon further argued that there is more variation in the semantic types of adjectives than in any other category (1982 [1977]: 13). Seven semantic types were pro- posed, which in later work have been divided into two groups, as illustrated in (2.15). If a language has an adjective class, then the first group, i.e. the core semantic types, or at least some of them, will be represented there, regardless of whether the adjective class in question is small or large. If a language has a medium-sized or somewhat larger adjective class, the second group, i.e. the peripheral semantic types, will typically also be found among its members.⁷
   

(2.15) Dixon’s original semantic types of adjectives (Dixon 2004: 3-4)

1. 
   Core semantic types:
   
   1. 
      dimension – big, small, long
      
   2. 
      age – new, young, old
      
   3. 
      value – good, bad, lovely
      
   4. 
      color – black, white, red
      
2. 
   Peripheral semantic types:
   

5. 
   physical property – hard, soft, heavy
   
6. 
   human propensity – jealous, happy, kind
   
7. 
   speed – fast, quick, slow
   

An illustrative example of a language with a small Adjective class is Igbo (Atlantic-Congo), where eight Adjectives can be discerned, fitting into exactly four antonym pairs.

Table 2.3. Adjectives in Igbo (Atlantic-Congo) with corresponding semantic types (Dixon 1982 [1977]: 4)

Antonym pairs Semantic type