univariate
F ratios for each of the dependent
variables. This can lead to clear and interpretable
results.
ANOVA models using TYPE III sum of
squares are estimated for SHOULDBE and
HOWITIS (with SEX, ACADEMIC-CLASS,
and ETHICPRT as independent variables).
Because of missing values the analysis was per-
formed on 658 observations.
Results are provided
in Table III.
Both sex of the subject as well as whether the
subject has been exposed to ethical content in a
course are significant in explaining variance in
the model. Table IV compares the mean
responses to the SHOULDBE variable. Because
the cell sizes are not equal, least square means are
used for all the comparisons (see Searle, Speed,
and Miliken, 1980). It should be noted that due
to the large sample size the difference between
the means and
the least square means was
negligible.
A two-tailed
t-test demonstrates that difference
between male and female responses on the
SHOULDBE variable is significant (
t = 3.21,
p < 0.001). Females were significantly more likely
than males to believe that good business ethics
should be positively related to business outcomes.
A two-tailed
t-test also indicates that the differ-
ence in mean response of those who had, and
those who had not been, exposed to ethical
education was significant (
t = –2.28,
p < 0.02).
Students who had been
exposed to ethical issues
in a course were more likely, than those who had
not, to believe that good business ethics should
be positively related to successful business
outcomes.
Interestingly, having been exposed to ethical
content in courses had more impact on females
than males. The mean response of females who
had not been exposed to ethics was 2.08
compared to those who had been exposed which
212
H. K. Luthar et al.
TABLE III
Dependent variable
SHOULD-BE (SS and MS have been rounded off to two decimal points)
SOURCE
DF
TYPE
III SS
MS
F Value
Pr >
F
MODEL
00
7
0
11.33
1.62
5.52
0.0001
ERROR
650
190.44
0.29
TOTAL
657
201.77
R-Square = 0.056 C.V = 26.28 Root MSE = 0.54
SOURCE
DF
MS
F Value
Pr >
F
CLASS (C)
1
0.74
0
2.52
0.11
SEX (S)
1
3.02
10.30
0.001
**
C
∗
S
1
0.26
0
0.89
0.35
ETHICPRT (E)
1
1.53
0
5.22
0.02
*
C
∗
E
1
0.17
0
0.60
0.44
S
∗
E
1
0.09
0
0.31
0.58
C
∗
S
∗
E
1
0.06
0
0.21
0.65
TABLE IV
Comparison of means
MEAN
SD
Dependent Variable:
SHOULD-BE
MALES
n = 367
2.15
0.58
FEMALES
n = 291
1.94
0.48
ETHICPRT
n = 561
2.02
0.55
NOETHICPRT
n = 97
2.16
0.54
was 1.90 (remember that lower scores indicate a
more positive ethical attitude). A two tailed
t-test
indicates the difference to be significant (
t =
–2.01,
p < 0.04). Also, it is to be noted that
freshmen were much more likely to be influ-
enced by having been exposed to ethical educa-
tion on this variable than seniors. The mean
response of freshmen exposed to ethics education
was 2.04, whereas for those who had not been
exposed the mean was 2.23. A two-tailed
t-test
shows that the difference
between the means is
significant (
t = –2.39,
p < 0.017). The means
for seniors who had been exposed or not exposed
to ethical education were not significantly dif-
ferent (
p < 0.35). The most dramatic difference
in means was for male seniors who had never
been exposed to ethics education (
M = 2.30) and
female seniors who had been exposed to ethics
(
m = 1.84). A two tailed
t-test shows the differ-
ence to be significant (
t = 4.17,
p < 0.0001).
Results from the ANOVA model for
HOWITIS, (with SEX, ACADEMIC-CLASS,
and ETHICPRT as independent variables) using
TYPE III sum of squares are given in Table V.
Both the academic rank (CLASS) of the
subject as well as
whether the subject has been
exposed to ethical content in a course are sig-
nificant in explaining variance in the model. The
following table compares the mean responses to
the HOWITIS variable. Least square means are
used for all the comparisons (see Searle
et al.,
1980).
A two tailed
t-test demonstrates that difference
between mean responses of freshmen and seniors
is significant on the HOWITIS variable (
t =
–4.34,
p < 0.0001). Freshmen were significantly
more likely than seniors to believe that good
business ethics is positively related to successful
business outcomes. A two-tailed
t-test also
indicates that
the difference between mean
responses of those who had been exposed to and
Perception of Ethical Climate
213
TABLE V
Dependent Variable:
HOWITIS (SS and MS have been rounded off to two decimal points)
SOURCE
DF
TYPE III SS
MS
F Value
Pr >
F
MODEL
00
7
0
16.73
2.39
4.70
0.0001
ERROR
650
330.43
0.51
TOTAL
657
347.17
R-Square = 0.048 C.V. = 24.26 Root MSE = 0.71
SOURCE
DF
MS
F Value
Pr >
F
CLASS (C)
1
9.58
18.85
0.001
***
SEX (S)
1
0.21
0
0.42
0.5167
C
∗
S
1
0.02
0
0.03
0.8540
ETHICPRT (E)
1
5.02
0
9.88
0.0017
**
C
∗
E
1
1.39
0
2.73
0.099
S
∗
E
1
0.33
0
0.65
0.4204
C
∗
S
∗
E
1
0.01
0
0.02
0.88
TABLE VI
Comparison of means
MEAN
SD
Dependent Variable:
HOWITIS
FRESHMEN
n = 327
2.85
0.72
SENIORS
n = 331
3.20
0.72
ETHICPRT
n = 561
2.90
0.73
NOETHICPRT
n = 97
3.15
0.71
those who had not been exposed to ethical
education is significant (
t = –3.14,
p < 0.0017).
Students who had been exposed to ethical issues
in a course were more likely, than those who had
not, to believe that good business ethics is pos-
itively related to successful business outcomes.
Again, having been
exposed to ethical content
in courses appears to have had more impact on
females than males. The mean response of
females who had not been exposed to ethics was
3.16 compared to those who had been exposed
which was 2.84. A two-tailed
t-test indicates the
difference to be significant (
t = –2.79,
p <
0.005). Also, it is to be noted that seniors who
had been exposed to ethical education (
m = 3.00)
were much more likely to believe that business
ethics is positively related to business outcomes
than seniors who had not been (
m = 3.40). A
two-tailed
t-test
shows the difference to be
significant (
t = –3.94,
p < 0.0001). One could
argue that being exposed to ethical education has
an important influence on attitudes towards
ethics.
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