imental study called the Pennsylvania Project revealed (Smith, 1970), com-
parison of language-teaching methods with the view to evaluating their
classroom effectiveness is a notoriously treacherous task replete with exper-
imental pitfalls (because not all the variables governing classroom learning
and teaching can be effectively controlled in order to study the impact of a
particular method on learning outcomes) and explanatory flaws (because
any explanation of what is observed in the classroom has to be the result of
subjective interpretation rather than objective evaluation).
A three-tier distinction has thus proved to be inadequate to “lessen a lit-
tle the terminological confusion in the language-teaching field” (Antony,
1963, p. 65). The first of the triad—approach—refers to theoretical princi-
ples governing language learning and teaching. These principles are gener-
ally drawn from a number of disciplines: linguistics, psychology, sociology,
anthropology, information sciences, conversational analysis, discourse
analysis, and so forth. The second part of the triad—method or design—
can be part of the first component because we can, by all means, think of
principles of syllabus design, principles of materials production, principles
of evaluation, and so forth. The third component, of course, refers to actual
classroom-teaching strategies. In other words, two major components of
any systematic learning/teaching operation are the principles that shape
our concepts and convictions, and the procedures that help us translate
those principles into a workable plan in a specific classroom context.
In light of the just-mentioned argument, it appears to me to be useful to
simplify the descriptive framework and make a two-part distinction:
princi-
ples
and
procedures
. The term, principles
,
may be operationally defined as a
set of insights derived from theoretical and applied linguistics, cognitive
psychology, information sciences, and other allied disciplines that provide
theoretical bases for the study of language learning, language planning,
and language teaching. The term thus includes not only the theoretical as-
sumptions governing language learning and teaching but also those gov-
erning syllabus design, materials production, and evaluation measures.
Similarly, procedures may be operationally defined as a set of teaching
strategies adopted/adapted by the teacher in order to accomplish the
stated and unstated, short- and long-term goals of language learning and
teaching in the classroom. Thus, certain elements of Antony’s approach
and method, and Richards and Rodgers’ approach and design can be sub-
sumed under principles. Classroom events, activities, or techniques can be
covered under procedures. The terms principles and procedures are not
new; they are implicit in the literature and are being used widely though
not uniformly or consistently. In this book, I employ these two terms, keep-
ing in mind that they are useful only for description of methods, and not
for evaluation of classroom teaching.
CONSTITUENTS AND CATEGORIES OF METHODS
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