Thinking, Fast and Slow

28: Bad Events
heartbeat accelerated
: Paul J. Whalen et al., “Human Amygdala
Responsivity to Masked Fearful Eye Whites,” 
Science
306 (2004): 2061.
Individuals with focal lesions of the amygdala showed little or no loss
aversion in their risky choices: Benedetto De Martino, Colin F. Camerer,
and Ralph Adolphs, “Amygdala Damage Eliminates Monetary Loss
Aversion,” 
PNAS
107 (2010): 3788–92.
bypassing the visual cortex
: Joseph LeDoux, 
The Emotional Brain: The
Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life
(New York: Touchstone,
1996).
processed faster
: Elaine Fox et al., “Facial Expressions of Emotion: Are
Angry Faces Detected More Efficiently?” 
Cognition & Emotion
14 (2000):
61–92.
“pops out”
: Christine Hansen and Ranald Hansen, “Finding the Face in the
Crowd: An Anger Superiority Effect,” 
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology
54 (1988): 917–24.
“acceptable/unacceptable”
: Jos J. A. Van Berkum et al., “Right or Wrong?
The Brain’s Fast Response to Morally Objectionable Statements,”
Psychological Science
20 (2009): 1092–99.
negativity dominance
: Paul Rozin and Edward B. Royzman, “Negativity
Bias, Negativity Dominance, and Contagion,” 
Personality and Social
Psychology Review
5 (2001): 296–320.
resistant to disconfirmation
: Roy F. Baumeister, Ellen Bratslavsky, Catrin

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Finkenauer, and Kathleen D. Vohs, “Bad Is Stronger Than Good,” 
Review
of General Psychology
5 (200 {/spFac1): 323.
biologically significant improvement
: Michel Cabanac, “Pleasure: The
Common Currency,” 
Journal of Theoretical Biology
155 (1992): 173–200.
not equally powerful
: Chip Heath, Richard P. Larrick, and George Wu,
“Goals as Reference Points,” 
Cognitive Psychology
38 (1999): 79–109.
rain-drenched customers
: Colin Camerer, Linda Babcock, George
Loewenstein, and Richard Thaler, “Labor Supply of New York City
Cabdrivers: One Day at a Time,” 
Quarterly Journal of Economics
112
(1997): 407–41. The conclusions of this research have been questioned:
Henry S. Farber, “Is Tomorrow Another Day? The Labor Supply of New
York Cab Drivers,” NBER Working Paper 9706, 2003. A series of studies
of bicycle messengers in Zurich provides strong evidence for the effect of
goals, in accord with the original study of cabdrivers: Ernst Fehr and
Lorenz Goette, “Do Workers Work More if Wages Are High? Evidence
from a Randomized Field Experiment,” 
American Economic Review
97
(2007): 298–317.
communicate a reference point
: Daniel Kahneman, “Reference Points,
Anchors, Norms, and Mixed Feelings,” 
Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Processes
51 (1992): 296–312.
“wins the contest”
: John Alcock, 
Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary
Approach
(Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2009), 278–84, cited by
Eyal Zamir, “Law and Psychology: The Crucial Role of Reference Points
and Loss Aversion,” working paper, Hebrew University, 2011.
merchants, employers, and landlords
: Daniel Kahneman, Jack L.
Knetsch, and Richard H. Thaler, “Fairness as a Constraint on Profit
Seeking: Entitlements in the Market,” 
The American Economic Review
76
(1986): 728–41.
fairness concerns are economically significant
: Ernst Fehr, Lorenz
Goette, and Christian Zehnder, “A Behavioral Account of the Labor Market:
The Role of Fairness Concerns,” 
Annual Review of Economics
1 (2009):
355–84. Eric T. Anderson and Duncan I. Simester, “Price Stickiness and
Customer Antagonism,” 
Quarterly Journal of Economics
125 (2010):
729–65.
altruistic punishment is accompanied
: Dominique de Quervain et al., “The
Neural Basis of Altruistic Punishment,” 
Science
305 (2004): 1254–58.
actual losses and foregone gains
: David Cohen and Jack L. Knetsch,
“Judicial Choice and Disparities Between Measures of Economic Value,”
Osgoode Hall Law Review
30 (1992): 737–70. Russell Korobkin, “The
Endowment Effect and Legal Analysis,” 
Northwestern University Law

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Review
97 (2003): 1227–93.
asymmetrical effects on individual well-being
: Zamir, “Law and
Psychology.”