5.3.1
Defining torture
The definition of torture under customary international law remains ambiguous. It
is of course contained in one universal and a number of regional treaties, but the
precise extra-conventional nature of these treaties and the crystallisation of a
customary definition is itself doubtful. While the various instruments enjoy common
elements, there is divergence generally on two issues: (a) the range of acts and the
effect of acts that constitute torture; and (b) whether torture may be committed by
persons other than State agents. We shall examine these issues in the following
sections. It is useful, first of all, to consider the definition of torture, under the most
widely ratified of the aforementioned instruments, the 1984 UN ConventionAgainst
Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (UN
Torture Convention). Art 1(1) defines the offence to mean:
Any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally
inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person
information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has
committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a
third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain
or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence
of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. It does not include
pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions.
This definition coincides to a very large extent with the 1975 General Assembly
Declaration on Torture, which was adopted by consensus.
45
However, the definition
contained in Art 3 of the 1985 Inter-American Torture Convention
46
is broader than
that of the 1984 UN Torture Convention, in that it does not require any threshold of
pain or other suffering for an act of ill-treatment to constitute torture. In actual fact,
neither physical nor mental suffering is required, if the intent of the perpetrator is ‘to
obliterate the personality of the victim or to diminish his physical or mental capacities’.
This definition, moreover, does not contain an exhaustive list of purposes that can be
pursued by the perpetrator but instead provides examples of such purposes and adds
‘or any other purpose’. The European Court and Commission of Human Rights have
construed torture as constituting an aggravated and deliberate form of inhuman
treatment which is directed at obtaining information or confessions, or at inflicting a
punishment.
47
This definition echoes Art 1 of the 1975 Declaration on Torture.
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) jurisprudence has
put forward the proposition that under customary international law there is no
requirement that the conduct be solely perpetrated for one of the prohibited purposes.
48
Thus, in the
Furundzija
judgment, the Court held that the intentional humiliation of
45
GA Res 3452(XXX) (9 December 1975), Declaration on the Protection of All Persons Being Subjected to
Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
46
25 ILM (1986), 519.
47
Ireland v UK,
Judgment (18 January 1978) (1978) 2 EHRR 25, para 167;
Greek
case (1969) ECHR Yearbook
134, p 186.
48
ICTY Prosecutor v Delalic and Others
(
Celebici
case), Judgment (16 November 1998), 38 ILM (1998), 57,
para 470;
ICTY Prosecutor v Kunarac and Others,
Judgment (22 February 2001), para 486.
49
Furundzija,
Judgment (10 December 1998), para 162. The judgment in the same case recognised that
being forced to watch serious sexual attacks inflicted on a female acquaintance was torture for the
forced observer, as is the presence of onlookers, particularly family members, on the person being
raped, para 267.
Chapter 5: Offences Against the Person
119
the victim is among the possible purposes of torture, since this would be justified by
the general spirit of international humanitarian law, whose primary purpose is to
safeguard human dignity.
49
The Trial Chamber further justified this proposition by
noting that ‘the notion of humiliation is, in any event, close to the notion of intimidation,
which is explicitly referred to in the [1984] Torture Convention’s definition of torture’.
50
This statement should be approached with extreme caution, since if true it would
render the offences of ‘outrages upon personal dignity’ and ‘inhuman and degrading
treatment’ redundant. This is more so because Trial Chamber II in the
Krnojelac
case
rejected the proposition espoused in the above mentioned judgments that intentional
humiliation may constitute torture under customary law.
51
The common denominator
of all the instruments to which reference was made points to the conclusion that the
underlying act must be instrumental to achieve a particular purpose set out by the
perpetrator. It is contentious whether customary law permits other forms of ill-
treatment to constitute torture, but increasingly the use of rape, in particular, in the
course of detention and interrogation as a means of intimidating, punishing, coercing
or even humiliating the victim, or for obtaining information, or a confession, from the
victim or a third person, has been recognised.
52
In the
Krnojelac
judgment, the ICTY
held that where confinement of the victim can be shown to pursue one of the prohibited
purposes of torture and to have caused the victim severe pain or suffering, the act of
putting or keeping someone in solitary confinement may amount to torture, and the
same would be true in analogy of the deliberate deprivation of sufficient food.
53
The distinguishing characteristic between torture and other lesser forms of ill-
treatment is the severity of the pain or suffering of the victim. A precise threshold
would be impractical to delineate and thus the task of assessment is left to the
discretion of the judge. ICTY and European Court of Human Rights (ECHR)
jurisprudence does not clearly set out a single test, whether objective or subjective.
Rather, they are in agreement that: (a) the severity of the harm rests on an objective
test; whereas (b) the mental or physical suffering requires subjective assessment,
involving consideration of factors such as the victim’s age, health, sex and others.
54
The objective test regarding the severity of the harm may be triggered by beating,
sexual violence, prolonged denial of sleep, food, hygiene, and medical assistance,
as well as threats to torture, rape, or kill relatives, as well as mutilation of body parts.
55
Torture in times of armed conflict is specifically prohibited by the 1949 Geneva
Conventions
56
and the two Additional Protocols of 1977.
57
As we shall see below, the
Kunarac
judgment concluded that whether or not international human rights law
50
Ibid,
para 162.
51
ICTY
Prosecutor v Krnojelac,
Judgment (15 March 2002), Case No IT-97–25-T, para 186.
52
Aydin v Turkey
(1998) 25 EHRR 251, paras 82–84;
Fernando and Raquel Mejia v Peru,
Decision (1 March
1996), Report No 5/96, Case No 10,970, Annual Report of the IACHR (1995), Doc OEA/Ser L/V/II
91, pp 182–88;
Furundzija,
Judgment (10 December 1998), para 163.
53
Krnojelac,
Judgment (15 March 2002), Case No IT-97–25-T, para 183.
54
Ireland v UK,
Judgment (18 January 1978) (1978) 2 EHRR 25, para 162;
ICTY Prosecutor v Kvocka and
Others,
Judgment (2 November 2001), para 143.
55
Kvocka,
Judgment,
ibid,
para 144; confirmed also in the views of the UN Human Rights Committee
in
Grille Motta,
Com No 11/1977;
Miango Muiyo v Zaire,
Com No 194/85;
Kanana v Zaire,
Com No
366/89;
Herrera Rubio v Colombia,
Com No 161/1983.
56
Common Art 3; Arts 12 and 50, Geneva I; Arts 12 and 51, Geneva II; Arts 13, 14 and 130, Geneva III;
Arts 27, 32 and 147, Geneva IV.
57
Protocol I, Art 75; Protocol II, Art 4.
International Criminal Law
120
generally recognises that only public officials or State agents can commit the crime
of torture, international humanitarian law makes no such distinction, thus rendering
any individual culpable of the offence, as long as the appropriate
mens rea
and
actus
reus
have been satisfied.
58
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