|
22
Extinction _______________ indicate the growing need for zoos to plan the controlled
increase of certain species’ numbers.
23
Better _______________ learned in zoos has led to certain species living for longer
periods in zoos and in the wild.
Questions 24 – 26
Choose
THREE
letters,
A - G
.
According to the text, what are some of the disadvantages of zoos?
Write the correct letter,
A - G
, in any order in boxes
24 - 26
on your answer sheet.
A
Zoos don’t invest enough money in providing effective educational experiences for
visitors.
B
Zoos don’t teach people anything apart from on a very superficial level.
C
Carnivorous animals in zoos suffer from not being able to hunt their prey in a realistic
way.
D
Some animals in zoos don’t have the opportunity to live in their realistic family groups.
E
Many zoos do not employ sufficient staff to care properly for their animals.
F
Animals suffer from not being able to breed in a realistic way in zoos.
G
Too many zoos engage in unethical practices when buying animals for their displays.
IELTS 5 Practice Tests, Academic Set 6
TEST 28
READING
Page 291
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on
Questions 27 - 40
, which are based on Reading Passage 3
below.
Leadership Theory
For decades, leadership theories have been the source of numerous studies. In reality as well
as in practice, many have tried to define what allows authentic leaders to stand apart from the
mass. Hence, there are as many theories on leadership as there are philosophers, researchers
and professors.
Two early theories in particular that emerged in the nineteenth century were ‘great man’
theory, which argued that great leaders are born, not made, and later trait theory, which
argues certain characteristics and attributes are peculiar to leaders. ‘Great man’ theorists see
history as shaped by the leadership of great men, and these theorists look at the ‘great man’
as being either possessed of divinely given features from which the masses in his proximity
profited or having a hereditary background that transmitted natural ability to the extent that it
is possible to identify the probability of an eminent person having eminent relatives. The
lasting impact of ‘great man’ leadership can still be observed over a century later, where
responsibility for having the answer to some of the world’s most complex problems are
placed on the shoulders of individuals, such as presidents, prime ministers and CEOs.
Subsequent to the ‘great man’ theorists, researchers from the early to mid-twentieth century
focused on traits of personality to explain leadership and sought to identify those
characteristics peculiar to leaders. Bird’s 1940 list of 79 relevant traits, taken from 20
psychologically oriented studies, demonstrates the extent to which traits were considered
quantifiable and foreseeable. Intelligence, drive, integrity and sociability were central to the
lists of almost all the researchers studying trait leadership.
Although the ‘great man’ theory and trait theory were criticised for their lack of scientific basis
in the nineteenth century, the examination of traits individually and in combination did not fall
into general disfavour until the middle of the twentieth century. Paving the way for later
studies, the psychologist Stogdill concluded that the qualities, characteristics, and skills
required of a leader are determined to a large extent by the demands of the situation and that
an adequate analysis of leadership involves a study not only of leaders, but also of situations.
Stogdill also touched on the relevance of group around a leader’s emergence and
effectiveness, concluding that a person does not become a leader by virtue of some
combination of traits; but that the pattern of personal attributes of the leader must bear some
relevant relationship to the characteristics, activities, and goals of those around him. The
connection between leaders and their followers would also form part of later thinking.
TEST 28
READING
IELTS 5 Practice Tests, Academic Set 6
Page 292
The relationship between leaders and followers was central to the theories that emerged as
trait theory fell into disfavour. The most prominent of these are the situational leadership
theory and the contingency model of decision making. The 1969 situational leadership theory
was based on an interpretation of existing empirical research. Researchers proposed that
different leadership styles are employed depending on the situation, as defined by both the
orientation of the manager, who can be either task or relations focused, and the maturity or
experience of the employee. In this model, the most effective leadership matches the leader’s
orientation with the subordinate’s maturity, beginning with directing newly appointed or less
experienced employees in their tasks, then coaching employees with more experience,
through to supporting, where managers engage employees’ maturity and knowledge to
complete tasks. The final style is delegating, which recognises that fully mature subordinates
work best when leaders delegate what needs to be done.
The contingency theory was based on rigorous deduction and support from controlled
empirical studies and experiments to develop a model to assist leaders to determine the most
effective approach to decision making. The model suggests the leadership decision style most
conducive to effectiveness depends on the characteristics of the situation, and on whether a
balance is achieved between a high-quality decision and a positive response to the decision
by subordinates. Leaders work through a series of questions resulting in a recommended
decision-making style ranging from directive to consultative, and on to participative decision
making. A final style, delegative, was added later.
Both the situational leadership and the contingency models have been challenged. The
situational leadership model has been criticised because of the lack of internal consistency of
its measures, its conceptual contradictions, and its ambiguities, and that the model appears to
have no theoretical or logical justification. The contingency model has been criticised as it was
judged to be detrimental to a group’s efficiency and subordinates’ job satisfaction. Critics
acknowledged that the contingency model was solely potentially helpful as a tool for
weighing up situational factors to find an appropriate decision making approach.
Finally, the 1970’s and 1980’s saw the emergence of transactional leadership and
transformational leadership theories. Transactional leadership describes a relationship in
which the leader initiates an exchange of valued things that motivate and bind followers to
the leader. At its most basic, transactional leadership is the swap of recompense for labour,
with the rewards being psychological or material in nature. Transactional leadership also
promotes the concept of a lack of compliance being penalised. Transformational leadership,
on the other hand, originates in the personal values and beliefs of leaders, not in an exchange
of commodities between leaders and followers. Proponents of transformational leadership
claim that rather than leading with only a transformational leadership style or a transactional
leadership style, the transformational leadership approach can augment the effects of
transactional leadership and even other approaches.
IELTS 5 Practice Tests, Academic Set 6
TEST 28
READING
Page 293
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