The Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education
of the Republic of Uzbekistan
Andizhan State University
Named After Zakhiriddin Mukhammad Babur
Faculty of Foreign Languages
Department of English Language and Literature
Speciality: Foreign (English) Languages and Literature - 5111400
COURSE PAPER
Theme: Analysis of using Fictional Images in British
literature
Compiled by: Adxamjonova Nazokat, group-201 D
Supervisor: Gavharoy Isroiljon kizi
Andizhan 2022
Theme: Analysis of Fictional Images in British literature
Plan:
Introduction
The Main Part:
1. Main Peculiarities of British literature and its successful representatives
2. Description of the Fictional Image elements in British literature
3. Teaching recommendation of the Fictional Images in British literature
Conclusion
List of used literature
British literature is the literature of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, as well
as the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.
The history of English literature actually includes several "stories" of various kinds. This is
literature belonging to specific socio-political eras in the history of England; literature
reflecting certain systems of moral ideals and philosophical views; literature, which has its
inherent internal unity and specificity. At different times, this or that "story" came to the fore.
The heterogeneity of definitions is entrenched in the names that are customarily given to
various periods of English literature. Some ideas of periods are captured by the name of
prominent or literary figures, others by the dominant literary and themes, and others by the
language in which the works were created. Medieval English dramaturgy has also been
replaced in this review; the history of dramaturgy is presented in a separate article.
There are two distinct periods in the history of English literature before the Renaissance,
each marked by historical milestones and changes in language. The first, Old English
period begins in 450-500 with the invasion of Britain by the Germanic tribes, usually
referred to as Anglo-Saxon, and ends with the conquest of the island by William of Norman
in 1066. The second, Middle English period begins around 1150, when the indigenous
language, supplanted for some time from use, became widespread again. as a written
language. Before the Norman conquest, the language of England was German, which was
a variety of dialects of the low coast of Germany and Holland, but during the Middle
English period this language underwent numerous internal changes, and after the 13th
century. fairly enriched by borrowings from French. The art of book-writing became known
in England only after the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. The earliest and
most productive school of Old English literature arose in Northumbria under the influence
of the Celtic and Latin cultures, but it was brought to an end by the raids of Scandinavian
pagan Vikings that began around 800. In the south, in Wessex, King Alfred and his
successors successfully resisted the Vikings, thereby contributing to the revival of science
and literature.
All this had two important consequences. Firstly, all the surviving works in verse and prose,
including those dedicated to pagan times, belong to Christian authors, mainly from the
clergy. There is no direct evidence of oral creativity of the pre-Christian period. Secondly,
almost all extant manuscripts were created later and mostly in the West Saxon dialect,
regardless of what language they might have been originally written in. Thus, Old English is
actually a foreign language for England, since Middle English and modern English first of all
go back to the dialect of J. J. that existed in the area with the center in London.Chaucer and
his contemporaries.
Unlike scholarly works and translations, fiction was created in verse. The main part of the
monuments of Old English poetry has been preserved in four handwritten codices; all of
them belong to the end of the 10th – beginning of the 11th centuries. In the Old English
period, the accepted unit of versification was a long alliterated line divided by a distinct
caesura into two parts containing two strong stressed syllables; at least one of them was
alliterated in each part. The earliest English poet known by name is the Northumbrian monk
Caedmon, who lived in the 7th century. The venerable historian Beda recorded his short
poem about the creation of the world, the rest of Caedmon's writings are lost. Four poems
have come down from the poet Kunewulf (8th or 9th century), which undoubtedly belong to
him: in the last lines of each he put his name, written in the letters of the pre-Christian
German runic script. Like Cunewulf, the unnamed authors of other poems combined
elements of epic narrative with Christian themes and individual techniques of the classical
style. Among these poems, the Vision of the Cross and the Phoenix stand out, in which the
interpretation of the Christian theme is marked by the restrained, often harsh spirit of the
pagan faith of the Germans, especially noticeable in the elegies The Wanderer and the Sea
Wanderer, with great force revealing the themes of exile, loneliness and homesickness.
The Germanic spirit and Germanic plots have been embodied in heroic poems about great
warriors and folk heroes. Vidsid occupies an important place among these poems: a court
storyteller who composed and performed such poems is brought out here. He remembers
distant lands where he visited, and great warriors, including real historical figures, whom,
according to him, he met. Fragments of two heroic works of the type that Vidsid could well
have performed have been preserved: the Battle of Finnsburg and Walder. The greatest of
the surviving poetic works of that era, in which the elements of German heroic poetry and
the ideas of Christian piety appear in absolute fusion and completeness, is the heroic epic
Beowulf, created probably in the 8th century.
The formation of Wessex and the accession of King Alfred marked the beginning of the
revival of science and literature, which lasted until the Norman conquest of England. Alfred
personally supported and directed this process. With the assistance of clerical scholars, he
translated or commissioned translations of Latin texts important for the English
understanding of European history, philosophy and theology. These were the Dialogues and
Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory the Great, the compendium of the world history of Orosius,
the Church History of the Angles of the Venerable Beda and the Consolation of the
philosophy of Boethius.
Alfred supplied the translation of the Pastoral Guardianship with a preface in which he
lamented the decline of learning and even literacy among the clergy of his day and suggested
expanding education in Latin and English through church schools. Alfred came up with the
idea of creating the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which records historical events in fresh footsteps.
After his death, the Chronicle continued to be kept in a number of monasteries; in the vault of
Peterborough, events are brought to 1154. Poems were also recorded in it, for example, the
Battle of Brunanburg - an excellent example of Old English heroic poetry dedicated to specific
events.
The authors of works in prose who succeeded Alfred made a valuable contribution not so
much to artistic creativity as to the history of culture. Elfric wrote several collections of
sermons, the lives of saints and a number of works on grammar. Wulfstan, Bishop of London,
Worcester and York, also became famous as an author of sermons.
Middle English literature
The Norman conquest of 1066 caused profound changes in all spheres of English life.
Borrowed from France and implemented on the French model, the feudal system transformed
all public institutions, including cultural, legal, economic and political. Perhaps the most
important thing was that Norman French became the language of the nobility and the royal
court, while Latin still dominated the academic environment. People did not stop writing in
English, they continued to teach him, but for more than a century he retreated into the
shadows, although the majority of the population spoke him. At the end of the 12th century,
the English language became widespread again, its grammatical structure was greatly
simplified, but the vocabulary of the conquerors only slightly affected its vocabulary. Intensive
borrowing from French began only at the end of the 13th century. for a number of reasons,
including under the influence of Chaucer's poetry. Changes in the language caused
corresponding changes in the structure of the verse. The rhythmic organization of the line
increasingly relied on the total number of syllables, rather than on percussion alone, as in Old
English; the end rhyme as the basis of poetic harmony replaced internal alliteration.
The earliest Middle English texts, large and small, are of a religious or didactic nature. Many
of them are written in the southwestern and west-central dialects of the late 12th century. And
because of this, they directly continue the tradition of literature in West Saxon, which was
widespread before the conquest. The composition of the Rule for Hermits (Ancrene Riwle)
clearly stands out from the didactic texts. Instructing three believing women who lead the life
of recluses, the author discusses various matters – moral, psychological and economic, turns
to a sermon, a short story, an allegory, a parable, writes in a lively conversational style.
Another significant work of the era is the Owl and the Nightingale dispute poem, marked by
genuine humor and poetic skill.
The royal court and the nobility, who settled in medieval castles, craved literary entertainment
no less than the courts of kings who ruled in the Anglo-Saxon period, and also preferred the
heroic poem to other literary genres. The feudal environment, however, radically transformed
the content, character and style of the poem, and in aristocratic circles of the 13th century, not
comparatively simple heroic poems, but chivalrous novels became famous.
The hero of such a novel is, as a rule, a person at least semi-historical, but his deeds consist
not so much in ordinary battles and wanderings, as in feats associated with supernatural
carriers of good and evil, in the fight against supermages, servants of the devil, and in battles
with the use of magical weapons like Excalibur, the sword of King Arthur. The miraculous
exploits of the hero can easily be interpreted in the Christian spirit as an allegorical depiction of
the struggle of the soul with evil temptations in the pursuit of perfection, although by their
nature medieval chivalric novels were not allegorical.
In addition to the heroic beginning, the chivalrous romance in Western literatures of this period
was enriched by a completely new set of feelings and motives, called courtly love. It was
based on the premise that the main source of knightly prowess and great deeds was love for a
noble lady, who was traditionally portrayed as virtuous, refined, strict and almost unattainable.
The cult of courtly love developed from the cult of the Virgin Mary, which played an extremely
important role in medieval Catholicism. The cult of courtly love came to England together with
French feudalism. In the novels King Horn and Havelock the Dane, the heroes, English by
blood or adoption, expelled from their native kingdoms by usurpers, behave according to all
the canons of courtly love: they return the kingdom with a sword and at the same time win the
love of a beautiful lady.
The nascent self–consciousness of the British was concerned about two other novel cycles,
one connected with the theme of the siege of Troy and the Roman descendants of the Trojans,
the other with the figure of King Arthur. According to a beautiful legend, which was first
published by Geoffrey of Monmouth, the descendants of those who fled from Troy settled in
England since time immemorial. As for King Arthur, he was known to have read the compiled
British history attributed to Nennius (Historia Britonum, 9th-11th centuries), where he is
represented as the defender of Britain by the Romans and Celts from the invasion of Anglo-
Saxon tribes in the 5th-6th centuries. The greatest of the medieval English chivalric novels of
the Arthurian cycle (Arthurian Legends) is undoubtedly created in the 14th century. Sir Gawain
and the Green Knight. The author of this novel probably also owns the poem Pearl – an elegy
on the death of a little girl; he can also be credited with the didactic poems Purity and Patience.
Moralizing literature in general experienced its heyday in the 14th century, partly, probably,
under the influence of the ideas of the religious reformer D. Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384). It took
various forms: a thorough sketch of world history, as a Wanderer of the World (Cursor Mundi),
an interpretation of church doctrine, as a List of Sins (Handlyng Synne) by R. Manning; a
review of the misdeeds of people of every kind and condition, as a Human Mirror written in
French by Chaucer's friend D. Gower (Le Miroir d''Homme). The most significant didactic poem
of the century is the Vision of Peter the Plowman, belonging to the author, who calls himself W.
Langland in the text of the poem (preserved in three separate versions). This lengthy moral
allegory contains satirical attacks against the abuses of the church and the state. It is written in
ancient Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse (modified), which is one of the brightest poetic
achievements of all Middle English literature.
J. Chaucer (c. 1340-1400) is the highest embodiment of the English creative genius of the
Middle Ages and one of the largest figures of English literature. He performed in almost all
genres of literature of that time.
Closely associated with the refined court, which absorbed the canons of chivalry and courtly
love, Chaucer reflected his morals and lifestyle in many of his writings. Chaucer's style and
prosody belong to the French rather than the Russian tradition; their impact on English poetry
cannot be overestimated. Chaucer's language is clearly closer to modern English than to the
Langland language; the London dialect began to turn into a normative literary language mainly
due to Chaucer's poetry.
A poet of the highest degree of independence, Chaucer used many traditional methods of
writing, while achieving the result he needed. His compositions, including lyrics and small
poems, often reveal a combination of the peculiar with the generally accepted. The Canterbury
tales, with their composition, in which talkative, quarreling and laying out all about themselves
narrators act and embody various forms of medieval literature, are the quintessence of the
creative imagination of the era. Chaucer uses fablio in a particularly original way – designed to
amuse a short poetic novella, satirical, mischievous or combining both of these qualities. The
plots of the few surviving English fablios are sometimes as fantastic as in chivalric novels, but
circumstances allowed for realism in them, and Chaucer fully realized this possibility. In the
form of a fablio, the stories of the Miller, the Majordomo and the Skipper are given.
About a hundred years separating Chaucer's death from the reign of the Tudors did not
introduce significant innovations in the content and form of literary works. During the 15th
century, there was only one noticeable change – the moralizing satire became angrier as the
medieval system of the universe deteriorated. The harsh tone and terrible, sometimes
apocalyptic images in the writings of religious reformers and poets were evidence of a growing
sense of crisis.
Among Chaucer's followers, D. Lydgate (c. 1370 – c. 1449) was particularly versatile and
prolific. He imitated Chaucer's House of Glory in his Glass Castle, translated secular and
moral allegories and chivalric novels from French. Lydgate was a monk, but he had
connections at court and in big cities and often wrote poetry to order. His contemporary T.
Okliv (d. 1454) did the same, but wrote less. The Scottish imitators of Chaucer differed from
the English in greater independence. Among them were King James I, who wrote mainly in a
courtly style; R. Henrison (d. before 1508), the author of an extraordinary continuation of
Chaucer's poem Troilus and Chryseis; W. Dunbar (d. c. 1530), who worked in various poetic
genres – secular and moralizing allegory, satirical vision, realistic dialogue, dispute poem,
burlesque and elegy.
In this age of sequels and imitations, the Death of Arthur T. Malory, although built on borrowed
plots, became an outstanding literary phenomenon. Its sources were a cycle of French
chivalric novels in prose and two English novels in verse, collectively covering the period of
the reign of King Arthur and the adventures of his main knights. The author's nostalgia for the
past idealized by him gives the whole composition an intonational unity and, in a certain
sense, characterizes the spirit of the century.
Malory 's editor and publisher was the English first printer W.Caxton (1422-1491), who served
English readers, whose circle had significantly expanded by the end of the 15th century, a
great service, providing them with a whole library of domestic authors and translations from
French and Latin. Caxton was the first to publish the works of a number of English writers,
including Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate. The realization of the fact that what they composed
appears in the form of a printed book that the public reads (hence the original meaning of the
word "publish"), quite naturally forced the authors to think seriously about the style. The style
has ceased to be the result of personal mutual understanding between the reader and a
narrow audience and has turned into a kind of generalized, normalized and indispensable
prerequisite for mutual understanding between the writer and the reader. Another important
consequence of the introduction of printing was the growth in the number of not just readers,
but buyers of printed publications, to a certain extent dictating what they would like to read.
The emergence of the middle class is a process that lasted not just the 15th century, but
several centuries. However, it began in Caxton's time and, in particular, declared itself by the
development of ballads and folk religious drama. In them one can find the first sprouts of
creative self-expression of that new social class, which belonged neither to the learned
spiritual estate nor to the noble nobility, but aspired to scholarship and nobility in its own way.
Ballads are plot songs by unnamed authors that existed in oral transmission and were
structurally based on the chorus and repetitions. The heyday of the English ballad falls on the
15th century, although some ballads belong to the early Middle Ages, and others arose after
the 15th century. Their plots are simple, the action is fast and intense, the leading role is given
to dialogue. The range of topics is wide – from legendary heroes like Robin Hood to
supernatural forces. They owe much of their charm to a dramatic plot and a clear dynamic
intrigue.
The roots of English drama go back to the times before the appearance of the earliest ballads.
In England, as elsewhere, performances on religious topics were originally mimetic in nature
and consisted of dialogues in Latin, which were pronounced during the liturgy and
complemented it. Qualitative changes came when lay associations, such as guilds, began to
stage religious plays outside the church in an expanded version and in the vernacular. The
earliest example of an English drama of this type is the Action about Adam (Le Jeu d'Adam,
13th century), written in French and telling not only about the first fall, but also about Cain and
Abel. Flourishing from the 14th to the beginning of the 16th centuries, drama was represented
by two main forms: mysteries, in which biblical episodes ("sacraments") were played out, and
moral – moral allegories. Drama was both a religious art and a folk spectacle, in the
arrangement of which the whole community usually took part. This twofold nature explains the
frequent (and striking) combination of splendor with realism, and sometimes mischievous
obscenity, which gives the plays a characteristic expressiveness.
Some moralists, such as Wycliffe and Manning, reviled the mysteries, mainly because they
were staged under the auspices of the laity. However , the staging of the mystery required the
cooperation of the church clergy in one form or another.
Moralite, like allegory plays, contained less of the common, or "secular". The best and most
famous moral is Every person (probably a reworking of a Dutch source), a recreation of a
person's spiritual path from the first reminder of death to the consolation of the last church
rites and death.
Like the romances of chivalry and the late allegorical narratives, the English religious drama
was medieval in its essence. However, all these genres survived after the reign of the Tudors
and influenced literature for a long time. Gradually, their canons were increasingly modified
in comparison with European ones, acquiring a purely English specificity. The medieval
heritage transformed in this way passed to the writers of the Renaissance.
At the beginning of the 16th century, two poets, A. Barclay and D. Skelton, who wrote in the
medieval tradition, brought something new to the content and interpretation of poetic
themes. Barclay, in Eclogues (1515, 1521), translations from Mantuan and Enea Silvio,
discovered a pastoral theme in English poetry. Skelton, in the lively original satire Fool Colin,
written in short lines with uneven rhythm and ending rhymes, ridiculed the clergy, Cardinal
Wolsey and the court. However, the real beginning of the new poetry is connected with the
songwriters at the court of Henry VIII, who set a personal example to his close ones,
succeeding in poetry, academic studies, music, hunting, archery and other noble
amusements. Almost everyone wrote poetry at his court, but the renewal of poetry is
primarily associated with T. Wyeth and G. Howard, Earl of Surrey. Like all the courtiers of
that time, they considered the occupation of poetry only as the amusement of noble people
and did not publish their poems, so most of what they wrote was published posthumously in
the collection of Songs and Sonnets (1557), better known as Tottel's Almanac. Wyeth
introduced the Italian octave, terzina and a love sonnet in the style of Petrarch into English
poetry and himself wrote courtly songs filled with genuine lyricism. The Earl of Surrey
cultivated the genre of the sonnet, but his main merit lies in the fact that with his translation
of two songs of the Aeneid, he made the white verse the property of English poetry.
The great achievement of the reign of Henry VIII was the development of the humanities by
the students and followers of those Englishmen who at the end of the 15th century made a
pilgrimage to Italy, to the source of New Knowledge. The firm conviction in the power of
ancient culture, with which they returned to their homeland, determined the activities of the
Oxford reformers; they included Grosin, Linacre, Colet, More, and Erasmus of Rotterdam,
who had repeatedly visited England. They engaged in reforms in the field of education,
religion and the church, government and social structure. In Utopia written in Latin (1516,
translated into English in 1551), where the approaches and values of the Renaissance are
presented on almost every page, Thomas More outlined his ideas about the ideal state. T.
Eliot's treatise on political prudence and the education of a nobleman Ruler (1531) and his
later works show that in English, with minor borrowings from other languages and the
increment of new formations, it is possible to successfully formulate philosophical ideas that
the author sought to convey to compatriots. In 1545 P .Askem dedicated to Henry VIII
Toxophilus – a treatise on archery and the benefits of noble outdoor amusements for the
education of a young man. The structure of his prose is more orderly and distinct than that of
Eliot; he was the first to use various techniques of phrase construction for a more accurate
and clear presentation of thought
Poetry created in the period between the end of the reign of Henry VIII and the beginning of
F.Sidney and E. Spencer, hardly foreshadowed the unprecedented poetic "harvest" of the last
twenty years of the century. The exception is T. Sackville's poems Introduction and
Lamentations of Henry, Duke of Buckingham, published by him in one of the editions of the
collection of tragic medieval stories of the Mirror of Rulers (1559-1610). Written in seven-line
stanzas using iambic pentameters, they belong to the medieval tradition of theme and stylistic
canon, but their composition fully corresponds to their mood, highly original honed images and
mastery of versification. These poems can be considered as an important link between
medieval and modern poetry. Apart from them, only the poems of the skillful master
J.Gascoigne and T. Tusser, as well as J.Tarberville, T. Churchyard and B. Goodge stand out
against the background of mediocre poetry of the middle of the century.
During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603), called Elizabethan, the literature of the English
Renaissance reached the peak of prosperity and diversity; such an amazing concentration of
creative genius is a rare phenomenon in the history of world literature. The reasons for such
powerful "outbursts" of creative energy are always difficult to determine. In the Age of
Elizabeth, its source was the simultaneous impact of existing cultural phenomena and factors
on the English nation as a whole. The Reformation gave rise to an abundance of religious
writings – from the Book of Martyrs (1563) by D. Fox to the loftily eloquent Laws of the church
Code (1593-1612) by R. Hooker; they included sermons, polemical pamphlets, breviaries,
religious poetry.
The most influential force that determined the look of the century was, perhaps, Elizabeth
herself and everything that she personified. If religious disputes, geographical discoveries and
classical education led the Elizabethans to a new understanding of their place in history, the
world and the universe, then Elizabeth, with her royal grandeur and brilliance of government,
clearly embodied all this novelty and optimism. The century rightly bears her name: she forced
her subjects to be imbued with a new self-consciousness that took possession of the minds,
universal and at the same time purely national. The fact that she was at the center of
everything is confirmed by numerous works that nourished a strong sense of national pride and
a high destiny destined for the nation – the Fairy Queen (1590-1596) by Spencer, Henry V
(1599) by Shakespeare, The Music Lover (1599) and the Defense of Rhyme (1602) by S.
Daniel, Polyolbion (1613, 1622) by M. Drayton and others.
Drama and lyrical poetry, these greatest achievements of the Elizabethans, were soon
recognized as the most perfect forms for representing action and revealing personal feelings.
Of the prominent people who wrote poems, only a few published them, but many allowed what
was written to diverge in manuscripts. Their poems often appeared in such collections as The
Flower Garden of Fine Words (1576), the Phoenix's Nest (1593) and Poetic Rhapsody (1602).
Many poems were set to music by the songwriters – W. Byrd, T.Morley, D. Dowland and T.
Campion, who wrote the lyrics of his songs himself.
The poem is also richly presented. The peaks of a historical poem imbued with powerful
patriotism in the spirit of popular chronicle plays of the era are Albion's England (1586) by W.
Warner, Daniel's Civil Wars (1595, 1609) and the Barons' Wars (1596, 1603) by Drayton.
Among the meditative and philosophical poems, Orchestra (1596) and Know Yourself (Nosce
Teipsum, 1599) by D. Davis stand out. The third dominant type of poem is love–narrative,
with sensual images and language. Her main examples include Hero and Leander (1593),
Marlowe, Venus and Adonis (1593) and Shakespeare's Lucretia (1594). However, the
greatest creation in this genre is the Fairy Queen (1590-1596) by Spencer, in which elements
of a chivalrous novel and a courtly narrative about love are fused into an artistic whole, which
is one of the most significant phenomena in English poetry.
D. Lili in the book Euphues, or The Anatomy of Wit (1578) and its sequel Euphues and his
England (1580) was one of the first in England to purposefully use prose as a form of artistic
writing. His style is characterized by an abundance of "witticisms", i.e. far-reaching and often
highly learned comparisons, end-to-end alliteration and exceptionally strict proportionality
between sentences and individual words. Lily and the authors of pastoral novels sought to
plant courtly values and explore noble lofty feelings. Another direction of Elizabethan fiction,
represented by R. Green's pamphlets about swindlers and T. Dekker's Alphabet of Cheats
(1609), depicts the life of the London "bottom" with savory realism, which, naturally, dictates a
style that is by no means courtly, but much rougher, uneven and disheveled. Perhaps the
most significant in the series of English picaresque novels is The Ill–fated Wanderer (1,594)
by T. Nash. The speech of the swindler and "wanderer" Jack Wilton is a brilliant combination
of jargon, wit, scholarship and unrestrained verbiage.
The need for translated literature also contributed a lot to the formation of the style of mature
English prose. Some of the translations carried out in the Elizabethan era are among the
most creative and perfect in the history of English literature.
During the 16th century . all these elements served to develop English prose. The time of
expansion of its borders fell on the next century, and it began with the release of the
canonical collective, the so-called authorized translation of the Bible (1611).
The birth of English literary criticism dates back to the middle of the 16th century. It began
with unassuming essays on rhetoric, such as The Art of Eloquence (1553) by T. Wilson, and
on versification, as the first critical essay – Some remarks on how to write poetry (1575) by
Gascoigne. Sidney, in a brilliant Defense of poetry (ca. 1581-1584, publ. 1595), brought
together everything that had been said before him about the ancient "roots", the
comprehensive nature, essence, purpose and perfection of poetry. Those who wrote about it
most often suggested improving English poetry by introducing classical, i.e. metric, system of
versification. Only after the prominent lyric poet Campion formulated the rules of versification
in this system, and Daniel convincingly and sensibly refuted the provisions of his treatise with
his essay In defense of rhyme (1602), serious attempts to introduce the so-called "new
versification" were put to an end.
In 1603 Queen Elizabeth died, bequeathing the throne to James Stuart. Her death seemed to
serve as an impetus for the spread of a general sense of change and decline, which marked the
great creations of the "Jacobite" era – the period of the reign of James I and Charles I. The
upheavals that defined the face of this era include scientific discoveries (including the triumph of
the Copernican concept of the solar system), the rationalism of Descartes and the growing
religious strife between Catholics, adherents of the Anglican Church and Puritans – radical
Protestants. The war of faiths reached its peak in 1649, when Charles I was executed and O.
Cromwell established a Protectorate. This event marked a turning point in both the literary and
political history of England. With the end of the Protectorate and the enthronement of Charles II,
the Restoration period began. It is so different from the previous one that it deserves separate
consideration.
The general mindset of the first half of the 17th century is probably more accurately called the
"outcome of the Renaissance", a time when the optimism and confidence of the Elizabethan
Century were replaced by reflection and uncertainty. The search for solid foundations of life
gave rise to prose, the pages of which are among the best written in English, and a school of
so-called "metaphysical" poetry, whose best examples are not inferior to the great creations of
any other century. Historical and biographical prose acquired a more relevant sound in such
works as The History of Henry VII (1622) by Bacon with its insightful artistic disclosure of
character; the History of the Rebellion (1704) by the Earl of Clarendon; the Ecclesiastical
History of Britain (1655) and English Celebrities (1622) by the eccentric colloquial T. Fuller; the
biographies of Donne, Hooker, Herbert, Wotton and Sanderson's, compiled by A. Walton, author
of the deceptively uncomplicated idyll The Art of Fishing (1653).
It was also the first great century of the English essay, interest in which revived in connection
with the release of Bacon's Experiments in 1597; the latter soon had numerous followers and
imitators, the most famous of them N. Briton, J. Hall, O. Feltham and A. Cowley. Such short
forms of essays as reflections and especially "characters" describing human types and
properties were also popular. The best examples of them belong to T. Overbury and his
followers, as well as to J. Hall, the author of Virtuous and Vicious Natures (1608). According to
the style and logic of the presentation, the characters had a certain similarity with the main
poetic direction of the century – metaphysical, or "learned" poetry.
At the beginning of the 17th century, three main poetic traditions prevailed, reflecting three ideas
about the essence and purpose of poetry: myth-making, platonic, romantic trends coming from
E. Spencer; the classical restrained manner of B. Johnson; the intellectual beginning of
metaphysical poetry was emphasized. However, it would be wrong to assume that these
traditions opposed each other; on the contrary, they interacted and mutually enriched to such an
extent that, for example, the poetry of J.Herbert or E. Marvell cannot be attributed to either the
metaphysical or the "Johnson" school.
Modern culture, in particular on-screen, is saturated with elements of fictional images and
worlds. The screen culture of fantasy has a special influence on teenage readers. Consumers
prefer different formats and types of fantasy: heroic fantasy (describes the adventures of
physically strong heroes), epic fantasy (classics of the genre, presented by J. Tolkien), dark
fantasy (dark fantasy; located at the junction of Gothic and fantasy), a variety of vampire sagas
(for example, the popular "Twilight" by S. Mayer), it is worth mentioning humorous fantasy
(ridicules typical features of the fantasy genre)1. Among all this diversity, works that could be
safely handed to a teenager not only 17, but also 12-13 years old deserve special attention.
Such books, which have already become classics of the genre, include the works of Roald
Dahl ("James and the Giant Peach", "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", "Matilda"), Neil
Gaiman ("Coraline in the Land of Nightmares", "Stardust", "The Story of the Cemetery"), J.K.
Rowling (a series of books about Harry Potter), Philip Pullman (The Dark Beginnings trilogy),
and Terry Pratchett (Discworld)2. In these works, the author creates a fictional world full of
adventures and secrets; these books belong to high-quality literature that allows a person to
develop in various directions, comprehend the depths of human nature, features of behavior
and relationships, allowing to get acquainted with such complex concepts as moral choice,
worldview and personality formation. Based on this, we can conclude that the system of
images in fantasy is extensive and diverse. These images are usually based on mythology, or
on the fantasy of the author, or stem from real-life objects of reality. In the system of images,
linguists note mythological and absolutely fictional images. In the works of J.K. Rowling,
mythological creatures are quite common, they are represented by centaurs, a phoenix named
Fawkes, a "community" of giants.
No less interesting are the images of fictional creatures. Such images are based on the
author's fantasy and pun. The master of such images was, for example, Lewis Carroll. In
Wonderland we will meet a Jabberwocky, a Cheshire cat (he is unusual in that he smiles) and
a sandwich. Absolutely fictional characters are found not only in Carroll, so the hobbit is a
figment of J. R.'s imagination. Tolkien, and Roald Dahl convincingly portrays some Oompa-
Loompas. Fantasy works are undoubtedly connected with a literary fairy tale, since, in our
opinion, the system of images, their functions and typology of these genres are largely similar.
Consequently, the techniques of creating images in fantasy coincide with the techniques of
creating images in a literary fairy tale. Consider the first reception. When creating an image,
the author of fantasy often turns the prosaic, ordinary into a fabulous, magical. So, animals
acquire speech, reason and human feelings interspersed with emotions. For example, when
creating the image of a cat ("Coraline in the land of Nightmares"), Neil Gaiman emphasizes the
fact that in a fictional ("other world") the cat could not only talk, but also think realistically.
Another example of the transformation of the prosaic into the magical is the endowment of an
"ordinary" person with supernatural or simply magical abilities. So, Roald Dahl's Matilda was
not just a smart and kind girl, she possessed the most real supernatural abilities, could move
objects with the power of thought. The second technique that fantasy authors extensively use
is the involvement of ordinary objects in a fictional world. This technique of creating images
can be found in almost any work of the fantasy genre.
The world of wizards created by J.K. Rowling is a world that is adjacent to our
reality. As a rule, Muggle children (not wizards) cannot get into Hogwarts (the
school of witchcraft and wizardry), but sometimes exceptions are made (for
example, Hermione Granger, a friend of Harry Potter) and then ordinary objects,
which most often serve the characters themselves, are involved in a fictional
world. Another example is in Neil Gaiman's "The Story of the Cemetery", a boy
accidentally ends up in a cemetery, where, contrary to the laws of the afterlife, he
is raised by ghosts. The world of teenage fantasy heroes is diverse and bright,
the correct interpretation of images contributes to an adequate perception of the
work as a whole, enhances its educational value. It is the images that are the
bearers of the basic thought and morality, so the study of the image system is
undoubtedly useful and important. Based on the above, we can conclude that the
images of the main characters in teenage fantasy have their own functions.
Firstly, like all artistic images, they have such functions as cognitive,
communicative, aesthetic and education6. For a fantasy or fairy-tale image, the
last function is of particular importance: despite the fact that many works
belonging to the fantasy genre are also re-read by adults, they are primarily
addressed to children. Images, therefore, belong to a key position in the
development of ideas and themes of the work, and when interpreting the text,
they are considered as the most important elements in the structure of the whole"
Different scientists distinguish different functions of images, so V.Y. Propp, unlike I.V.
Arnold, considers the functions of fairy-tale images from the point of view of their
actions. Since the genre of children's fantasy is very closely related to the fairy tale, it
can be argued that the functions of the fairy-tale image highlighted by V.Y. Propp can
be applied to the fantasy genre as well. A function in this context is understood as an
act of an actor, defined in terms of its significance for the course of action. V.Y. Propp
highlights such functions as "excommunication of one of the family members from
home" (for example, in J. Rowling, as in a classic fairy tale, the action begins with the
excommunication of Harry Potter from home). Another example of the functioning of a
fantasy image according to Propp is "violation of the ban"; this function is found in
almost all fairy tales and works of the genre (for example, Neil Gaiman's Coraline,
despite all prohibitions, still goes through the door leading to another world). V.Ya.
Propp also highlights such functions as: appeal to the hero with a ban, the
antagonist's intelligence, the antagonist's attempt to deceive the victim, the victim is
deceived, the antagonist harming one of the heroes, shortage, appeal to the hero, the
hero's decision, the hero leaves the house, the hero's tests, the hero's reaction to the
actions of the donor, receiving a magic remedy, the hero reaches the object of the
search, the struggle of the hero and the antagonist, the victory over the antagonist,
the elimination of the initial trouble or shortage, the return of the hero8. V.Ya. Propp
identifies a number of other functions, but for works written in the fantasy genre, the
above functions are quite enough, since after the return of the hero, most often, the
action is curtailed.
Fiction is the fruit of the creative imagination of the author of fiction, a feature film, a
television series or a computer game embodying his worldview. Artistic fiction is
characterized by the absence of direct correspondences both in reality and in
previous works of art.
A work of fiction involves the construction of an imaginary world, and, as a rule, its
fictionality is publicly recognized, so its audience usually expects it to deviate from the real
world in some way, and not be represented only by characters who are real people or
events that are actually authentic. A work of art is usually understood as not fully
connected with the real world, which, therefore, leaves its themes and context, for
example, its connection with reality, open to various interpretations. Characters and events
in some works of fiction may even exist in their own context, completely separated from
the known physical universe.
The creation of the world, world—building is the process of building an imaginary world,
sometimes associated with the whole fictional universe [2]. The resulting world can be
called a constructed hypothetical world. Developing an imaginary setting with such
cohesive qualities as history, geography and ecology is a key task for many science fiction
writers. World-building often involves the creation of maps, backstories, and characters.
According to the definition given by Roger Cayua, everything that is not an accurate
representation of familiar objects and living beings refers to the fantastic
Traditionally, fiction includes novels, short stories, fables, legends, myths, fairy tales and
epics, poetry, plays (including operas, musicals, dramas, puppet plays and various types of
theatrical dances). Also artistic works include films, cartoons, comics, video games, radio and
TV programs, etc.
Fiction is a key element of art (along with the reproduction of observed facts, the
use of prototypes and historical, mythological and literary sources), the main way of
artistic generalization. According to Maxim Gorky, artistry without fiction is
"impossible, does not exist". Fiction is present even in works based on real events,
touching on individual thoughts, statements and actions of characters [6]. Artistic
imagery necessarily combines two components — conventionality (accentuated
non-identity or even opposition between the depicted and reality) and lifelike
(blurring of boundaries, creating the illusion of the identity of art and reality)
The scope of fiction is the circumstances and events that make up the plot, individual
character traits and behavior of the characters, details of the household environment, nature,
terrain, etc. However, fiction is not an arbitrary fantasy, it is almost always connected with
reality in one way or another. As M. M. Bakhtin wrote, the author does not "invent", but
"anticipates" his hero. Even in fairy tales and fiction, fiction is connected with the realities of
the present or the past. Possible forms that fiction can take are the speculation of
mythological and historical sources (typical examples are the ancient drama and the Old
Russian novel), as well as life prototypes (in biographical and autobiographical works); or
convention, grotesque and fairy tale, providing opportunities for freer self—expression and
active processing of the material [8]. A characteristic difference between the elements of an
artistic narrative and reality is the absence of an element of chance: if a person's death in real
life can be accidental, then in a work of fiction it is always subordinated to the author's
intention. Realizing the events that "could have happened", the author reflects his ideas about
the laws of being, the possibilities of the development of reality. At the same time, in works of
certain genres (especially heroic and satirical), such events can go beyond the scope of
everyday verisimilitude; by definition, M. E. Saltykova-Shchedrin, art is designed to depict "not
only the actions that a person freely commits, but also those that he would undoubtedly have
done if he had been able or dared"
Archaic thinking is characterized by the absence of a clear boundary between historical and
artistic truth. However, already in folk tales the fiction is realized — they never pretend to be
considered a reflection of reality [7].
In ancient times, artistic fiction manifested itself mainly in two conventional forms: idealizing
hyperbole and belittling grotesque[7]. The first form was used in works that conjure up myths
(in particular, in ancient tragedy), historical legends and legends (heroic songs, sagas, epics).
Overcoming the limits of tradition and strengthening the positions of individual artistic fiction is
associated with such late-romantic seriously funny genres as Menippov's satire. Plato noted
the presence of fiction in the myth[9]; later, Aristotle formulated the principle according to which
the poet writes "not about what really happened, but about what could have happened,
therefore about what is possible by probability or by necessity"[6].
Christian doctrine treated fiction negatively. Thus, Thomas Aquinas called poetry an "inferior
doctrine" (Latin infima doctrina) and accused it of a "lack of truth" (defectus veritatis); Umberto
Eco believes that "inferior" for the father of the church in this case was "art as doing" in
comparison with pure speculation. Medieval scholastics believed that if a poet writes about
known truths, then he does not reveal anything new to the reader, just giving the written a
pleasant form; in the worst case, poetic techniques (for example, metaphor) are a lie, and
poetry is a concussion of the air (Latin sonum tantummodo vocis)
In the courtly and animal epic, fablio and other forms of novelistics of the Western
European Middle Ages, the fundamental role of artistic fiction was clearly realized. In
fiction, fiction manifests itself prominently in Dante's "Divine Comedy", in the
reinterpretation of traditional plots in Boccaccio and Shakespeare, reaches an epic scale
in Rabelais' work. On the contrary, in the main genres of ancient Russian literature
(military stories, the lives of saints) there was no such awareness until the XVII century,
since the authors of these works saw themselves as the keepers of tradition, not the
writers
The turning point in the attitude to fiction occurs in the era of pre-Romanticism and
Romanticism. If before that (especially in the theory of classicism) the dominant point of
view was that art played the role of a reliable reflection of reality, in the ideology of
Romanticism the emphasis is, in the words of Heinrich Kleist, on "writing according to its
own laws", and fiction is recognized as the most important property of poetry. Romantic
writers boldly transform and rethink folklore, mythology and previous literary sources —
a typical example is the work of J. V. Goethe and especially his "Faust". Within the
framework of claims to absolute spiritual independence (and sometimes elitism), an
active search for a new artistic reality begins, which has no previous analogues; such
are the fantastic works of E. T. A. Hoffman, Edgar Poe, N. V. Gogol, the poems of J. G.
Byron
In the realistic literature of the XIX—XX centuries, fiction to a certain extent loses its
position, since the emphasis shifts to the depiction of facts and personalities personally
known to the author of the work, and the distance between objective and artistic reality
is reduced. Leo Tolstoy in the last years of his life, in particular, writes: "It is shameful to
write a lie that there was something that did not exist. If you want to say something, say
it directly." Even for the basically fantastic work of Thomas Mann, the author noted the
"stimulating effect of facts". "Writing from nature" again becomes an independent value,
in the XX century fiction is often criticized as an exhausted phenomenon, which is
replaced by "the literature of fact". Nevertheless, in the genre of realism, the techniques
of conjecturing and "rebuilding" the facts of the real world continue to be used, and a
high-quality realistic work combines fictional and non-fictional elements. In Soviet art
criticism, which proclaimed the priority of realistic reflection of reality, over time, a
position was developed according to which "there is and should be a realistic convention
... a progressive and popular convention", which "organically enters into a broad
understanding of realism." Opponents of the ideology of naturalism, especially at the
beginning of the XX century, on the contrary, emphasized conventionality, completely
rejecting the "routine" lifestyle — such was the work of Vsevolod Meyerhold.
Currently, the main areas where the author's fiction remains explicit and undisguised are
detective, adventure literature and cinema, science fiction, fantasy. But fiction, although
to a lesser extent, is present in all other works of fiction and cinema. E. N. Kovtun writes
that in the works of mass genres, "the course of events peculiar to everyday reality" is
deliberately condensed and sharpened; in adventurous-adventure, detective and love-
melodramatic literature, the concentration of coincidences, coincidences, trials that fall
to the heroes, if not impossible, is at least incredible
Fiction is usually divided into many genres — subgroups of fiction, each of which
differs in a certain unifying style, a set of narrative methods, archetypes or other
techniques. For example, science fiction predicts or assumes technologies that were
not reality at the time of the creation of the work: Jules Verne's novel "From Earth to
the Moon in a direct way in 97 hours and 20 Minutes" was published in 1865, and
astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first people to land on the
Moon in 1969.
The historical novel places imaginary characters in real historical events. Some works
of fiction are slightly or strongly reinterpreted on the basis of some initially real story
or reconstructed biography, for example, the series of books "A Song of Ice and Fire"
by George Martin is partially based on the War of the Roses in England. Often, even
when a fictional story is based on facts, there may be additions and subtractions from
a real story to make it more interesting. If the plot of a work of fiction is based on the
assumption that historical events known to the reader actually proceeded differently
or were the result of the activities of unknown figures, such a work can be attributed
to the genre of cryptohistory. If, while working on the plot, the author makes the
assumption that at a certain stage of history there was a "fork", some well-known
event did not take place or ended differently (the Arabs won the Battle of Poitiers,
Churchill died in a car accident in 1931, etc. and as a result, the further development
of the story did not follow a well-known path, the work belongs to the genre of
alternative history.
Works of art that involve explicit supernatural, magical or scientifically impossible
elements are often classified by genre as fantasy — these include Lewis Carroll's
novels Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865), J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter and
John Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Fantasy creators sometimes imagine imaginary
creatures and creatures such as dragons, dwarves, fairies, etc.
Despite the developed classification of artistic genres, the best works of art, as a rule,
combine several different types of fiction. Examples are the combination of satire,
utopia and social fiction in K. Chapek's "The War with Salamanders" or mythological
fiction, fantasy and satire in M. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita".
The path of analysis indicates the sequence of consideration of a literary work, the
general direction of its study. The method of analysis reveals a more specific, private
way of understanding the literary text, emotional and conceptual development of the
work. The path of study determines the strategic line of the teacher, the methods of
analysis characterize the tactics of the educational process. The method of analysis
indicates the operation that we perform in the process of studying the text, specifically
determines the actions of the teacher and students. Retelling or expressive reading,
commentary or comparison of text variants can be included in the analysis "following
the author", and in the consideration of the system of images of the work, and in its
problem-thematic study.
The methods of studying a literary text are a narrower concept than the methods of
teaching literature in general. For example, making a montage, literary composition is
an interesting kind of work on literature. It can be used in the study of the writer's
biography, review topics and extracurricular activities. Sometimes editing, literary
composition can also serve the purposes of studying a literary text. For example,
working on the installation of lyrical digressions of "Dead Souls" helps students to see
the face of the author, to understand the movement of the author's thought. However,
the methods of studying a literary work have their own specifics, and this makes it
possible to distinguish them from the general methods of teaching literature.
One should also not confuse the method of analyzing a literary work and the forms of
studying literary material. Many methods of reviewing the text can be carried out in the
form of a teacher's lecture, and during a conversation or independent work of students.
For example, a comparison of a work with its real basis can be carried out in a lecture,
become the subject of a conversation, or be recommended as an independent work.
The arsenal of school techniques for working on a literary work is diverse.
The teacher is required to choose ways of reviewing the text, related to the artistic
nature of the work and necessary for the development of students. The need to
choose, layout, and implement methods of studying a literary text for a teacher is a
creative process. And in this creative activity, no one can replace the teacher, although
literary studies, psychology, pedagogy and methods of teaching literature constantly
turn out to be his assistants.
A justified choice of analysis techniques is far from easy. It was justified by
methodologists M.A. Rybnikova, V.V. Golubkov. Modern methodologists are also
persistently looking for the principles of classification of analysis techniques for their
more appropriate application (N.I. Kudryashev, V.A. Nikolsky, I.D. Khmarsky). Let's
outline the main techniques of working on a literary text and define their function in
school analysis.
The methods of analyzing a literary work in school have various functions. According to some
of the most basic qualities, these techniques can be divided into two groups: techniques for
comprehending the author's position in a literary work (literary studies) and techniques for
activating the reader's co-creation, which includes specific school types of work.
The main purpose of literary methods of analysis is to master the text, its composition, the
writer's style, bringing the reader closer to the author's thought in the unity of figurative and
logical principles. Consider them:
1. A commentary of a historical, everyday, general cultural or literary type restores in the eyes
of students the real reality depicted by the artist, thereby becoming clearer during the analysis
of the writer's intention. Without certain knowledge of the history of culture and society, the
author's positions are distorted or very imperfectly realized in the reader's perception.
For example, ignorance of ancient mythology, biblical legends makes it difficult to perceive
Pushkin's lyrics. Without at least an elementary idea of the literary and social struggle of the
50s and 60s of the XIX century. students are unlikely to understand the meaning of Bazarov's
denial of Pushkin and Raphael.
Commenting on the text, however, cannot replace other methods of analysis and in school
conditions does not receive a completely independent meaning. Literary commentary, such as
books by N.L. Brodsky and Y.M. Lotman about "Eugene Onegin", is used by the teacher
selectively.
The reconstruction of the historical and psychological situation that gave rise to the writing of
the work can be considered one of the techniques of commenting on the literary text. At the
same time, in some cases, the installation of documentary materials can not only precede the
analysis, but to some extent replace it, clarifying the meaning and even justifying the artistic
style of the work. The so-called lesson - novella about Pushkin's poem "I remember a
wonderful moment ..." or Lermontov's "Death of the Poet" can serve as examples of such
clarification of a literary text not directly, but by recreating the conditions that led to its
emergence.
2. The comparison of parts and various elements of a literary text, the identification of the plot
and the comparison of the images of the characters, the consideration of the connections of
the landscape and portrait with the general flow of the text are the main methods of mastering
the composition. Consideration of the composition does not necessarily occur "in the course
of the development of the action."
The analysis of the composition in the conditions of school analysis can only partially cover
the material of the work. Attention to the individual elements of the composition (plot,
landscape), the assimilation by students of the general structure of the work leads to the
need for "methodical techniques", as M.A. Rybnikova called them: drawing up a plan,
mentally rearranging episodes, etc. Work on the text of A.P. Chekhov's story "The Death of
an official", proposed by M.A. Rybnikova, is a brilliant example of work over the composition
in school conditions.
3. Observations on the writer's style. The style, like the composition, clarifies the author's
concept, the author's attitude to the depicted. The techniques of studying the style are
diverse. Observations on the writer's style begin with elementary exercises. Finding epithets
or verbs of action allows 1st grade students to notice the subtlety and motivation of the
artistic organization of the work. Sometimes a game task also contributes to these goals:
insert a word omitted in a literary text, and then explain why the writer used a different
synonym than the words suggested by the students.
In lyceums and colleges, the work on style becomes more complicated until the writer's
artistic manner as a whole is realized, the stylistic layers characteristic of the characters'
speech are compared with the author's narrative.
When students begin to read the poem "Dead Souls", usually the detailing of Gogol's
descriptions seems to them unjustified. Therefore, already in the first lessons, you can turn
to stylistic analysis, which will help open the comic narrative, show students that Gogol fills
the poem with everyday details, as he writes about "non-smokers", whose existence is
limited to trifles, things. Gogol doesn't seem to directly denounce the phenomena he writes
about. On the contrary, he often speaks about them solemnly, as if praising and exalting
them. But these objects are so insignificant that the uplifting style of their description gives
rise only to laughter.
4. The comparison of a work of art with its real basis, in a more private form - the hero with
the prototype always reveals the author's intentions, as the writer "sharpened" the vital
material.
The anecdote that Gogol based on the "Overcoat" did not contain such a huge typical
generalization that the story is filled with.
The juxtaposition of a work of art and a life story, a real character and a hero created
by a writer, has a double function. Firstly, it turns out that art is a reflection of life. At
the same time, this technique allows us to show that the reflection is not a mirror, that
the artist transforms images of reality, combines life and his attitude to it in art.
Reading and analysis of artistic traumas is the main means of literary development of
schoolchildren.
Clarification of the reader's perception must be taught in order to determine the direction of
analysis, to choose the main path of analysis and methods of studying the text.
The basis of the school analysis of the work is always a literary concept. The teacher
needs to accept the achievements of literary criticism at the level of a general
understanding of a work of art, and not just a commentary.
The path of study is a special sequence of analysis, a peculiar course, a "plot" of
consideration of a literary work. There are usually three ways of parsing: "following the
author", "by images", and problem-thematic. Each of them has special properties that affect
the attitude of students to the work, determining the very process of its comprehension.
Depending on these properties of each parsing path, the appropriate conditions for its
application are determined. It is important for the teacher to understand when and why he
chooses a certain path of analysis. At the same time, many wordsmiths talk about a mixed
way of analysis, during which the events of the work are considered in their plot sequence,
then the images of the characters, then cross-cutting themes or problems. Such a point of
view is attractive for its lively diversity, rejection of the scheme. However, in order to conduct
an analysis, it is necessary to comprehend each path in its specifics, to study its functions.
The choice of the way to study a literary work at school is determined by many motives: the
artistic nature of the work, the system of work on literature in this class, the experience of
analyzing previously studied works, the goal set by the teacher in this analysis, the level of
development of students, the nature of their reader's perception.
Analysis of "following the author". The analysis "following the author", which is based on the
plot of the work, and the main link is an episode, a scene, a chapter, has a number of
undeniable advantages: the naturalness of the order of analysis, following the developing
thought of the author, emotionality, consideration of the work in the relationship of form and
content. Chapter after chapter passes here in front of the students. They follow the
development of the plot, highlighting the central episodes, psychologically motivating the
actions of the characters, peering into the artistic fabric of the work. All this is undeniably
useful.
Analysis in grades V-VI should be based on the event basis of the work. From the act to the
character, from the event to the meaning - this is the characteristic path of the school
analysis, called "following the author". This way fulfills the need for active empathy and
children's interest in action, in the event side of the work.
The analysis of character images is the most familiar way of analyzing a work at
school. It promotes the affirmation of the view of literature as a human science.
Consideration of the images of literary heroes often turns out to be an indispensable
condition for analysis in grades 5-6. However, a complete embodiment of a similar
analysis usually gets in grades 7-9, when students become available to consider the
system of images of the work.
Given the ethical orientation of the children of grades 7-9 in their attitude to art, it is
useful to build an analysis so that the images of the heroes of the work, moral
collisions, appear in the foreground. This does not mean that the analysis is limited to
the moral content of the work, gradually aesthetic and social motives are included in it
The traditional analysis of images causes many objections in the methodological
literature. The division of heroes into main and secondary, "representatives" and
"singles", reducing the analysis to naming the traits of heroes and illustrating the traits
with quotations - all this obscured from teachers and students the positive possibilities of
a similar way of analysis and gave rise to fair criticism. The desire of students to morally
evaluate the heroes of the work, to explain their character, makes the consideration of
the system of images fruitful.
The system of lessons built on the consideration of the system of images reveals the
connections central to the work, which are emphasized by the natural transition from the
analysis of the character of one hero to another, by comparing them.
Sometimes the study of the composition of a work of art is singled out as a special way of
school analysis. If compositional analysis means a consistent study of a literary work from its
beginning to its last pages, then, in essence, it is identical to the analysis "following the
author". The inaccuracy of the term "compositional analysis" is that the composition of a work
of art is a broad concept. It includes both the plot, and extra-fictional moments (author's
digressions, descriptions, etc.), and the system of images of the work. One way or another,
the term "compositional analysis" rather contains an indication of the material than
determines the sequence of studying a literary work.
In order to characterize a problem analysis, it is necessary to clarify such concepts as a
problem question and a problem situation.
Creating a problematic situation requires, first of all, finding an acute issue that will be the
beginning, the beginning of a problematic approach to the topic. A problematic issue
sometimes requires an alternative form, which turns out to be a natural way
In literature lessons, a problematic situation acquires a number of specific
properties due to the nature of art:
1. The ambiguity of a work of art leads to the variability of readers' interpretations
of the text, and the choice between different solutions to a problematic issue can
not always be brought to a categorical resolution.
2. The problematic situation in literature lessons is often resolved not by the
principle of exclusion of conflicting opinions, but by the principle of
complementarity, when one position is supplemented by others.
3. In the study of literature, the emotional activity of students plays as significant
a role as intellectual, because a work of fiction requires empathy.
Thus, problematic situations can be created both when considering episodes
within the framework of the analysis "following the author" and when studying the
image of a character in a system of sequential analysis. The material of the
problem analysis in the framework of the lessons can be both the event and the
character of the hero.
The closest connection of fiction with the development of social ideology determines the
emergence and development at certain historical stages of various literary trends and
trends, a variety of typification methods (for example, classicism, critical realism,
sentimentalism, symbolism, socialist realism), the variety of specific manifestations in the
field of language, plot, literary genres, etc. The main genres (roles) of literature: epic, lyric
and drama, within which the following main types are distinguished: essay, story, news,
novel - in the epic; tragedy, drama, comedy - in drama; song, lyric poem - in lyrics. Literature
interacts closely with other forms of art. Extremely diverse, for example, are her connections
with theatrical art through dramaturgy, dramatizations of epic works and artistic reading.
The interaction of literary literature with cinema has found its expression in the creation of a
new genre - a literary screenplay, as well as in the adaptation of numerous literary works.
The emotional richness of poetic language creates the basis for the interaction of artistic
literature and music (song, romance, cantata, opera). Fine art finds in literature the basis for
many subjects and, most importantly, for a special graphic genre - illustrations for literary
works. On the other hand, many forms of essay literature bring fiction together with diverse
areas of public journalism.
The completeness of the reflection of human social practice in fiction determines its diverse
connections with various aspects of social ideology as a whole. The specificity of art, which
makes it possible to distinguish it from all other forms of human activity, lies in the fact that
art masters and expresses reality in an artistic and figurative form. It is the result of a
specific artistic and creative activity and at the same time - the realization of the historical
cultural experience of mankind. An artistic image acts not just as an external resemblance to
reality, but manifests itself in the form of a creative attitude to this reality, as a way to
speculate, to complement real life. Fiction is artistic.
Fiction is artistic
events, characters, and circumstances depicted in fiction that do not actually exist. Fiction
does not pretend to be true, but it is not a lie either. This is a special kind of artistic
convention, both the author of the work and the readers understand that the incidents and
heroes described did not really exist, but at the same time they perceive what is depicted as
what could be in our everyday earthly life or in some other world. Different literary trends did
not treat fiction in the same way. Classicism, realism and naturalism demanded authenticity,
verisimilitude and limited the writer's imagination: the arbitrariness of the author's
imagination was not welcome. Baroque, Romanticism, and modernism favored the right of
the writer to depict events that were incredible from the point of view of ordinary
consciousness or the laws of earthly life.
Many children’s novels and even picture books possess great power to open
up new worlds and inspire a capacity for empathy. Being able to empathise
makes it easier to be kind, tolerant and willing to consider other points of view.
it makes it harder to adopt prejudiced stances, helps to guard against
aggression and conflict and may even encourage people to take positive
action on behalf of others. it also helps young people to put their own
problems in perspective. these are all values that lie at the heart of human
rights – and we can find them in novels and picture books for children.
‘if, by reading ... we are enabled to step, for one moment, into another
person›s shoes, to get
right under their skin, then that is already a great achievement. through
empathy we overcome prejudice, develop tolerance and ultimately understand
love. stories can bring understanding, healing, reconciliation and unity.’
Archbishop Desmond Tutu
stories, memoirs and picture books are a great resource to help personalise
human rights that may otherwise seem abstract. they can awaken students to
new worlds and challenging situations. at the point of caring about anne
frank’s fate, for example, young readers want to know what can be done to
stop it happening again. fiction, too, can be used to provoke discussion that
permeates many areas of the school curriculum and creates different ways of
working together and understanding each other.
in harper Lee’s To Kill A Mockingbird, atticus finch tells his children, ‘You never
really understand a person until you consider things from his point
of view [...] until you climb into his skin and walk around in it’. adult readers
recognise his hope
that the children will grow into compassionate and tolerant people. But young
readers can see this too. harper Lee’s novel has become a byword for human
rights values and many adults cite it as the most formative book in their
teenage years - the story that had the greatest impact on their daily behaviour
and helped to shape their lives. it is an object lesson in fiction that inspires
profound understanding of what human rights really mean.
But To Kill a Mockingbird is not alone. at amnesty international UK we have a
programme of work on fiction that develops awareness of core human rights
values. We are also producing a series of teachers’ notes on particular novels
and picture books – including michael morpurgo’s Shadow, henning mankell’s
Secrets in the Fire and Bob graham’s picture book How to Heal a Broken
Wing.
Nearly three quarters of the teachers had read for pleasure during the last month anda fifth
during the last three months. Thus it seems that for the majority, readingremains a source of
satisfaction. This finding is in tune with large scale studies whichhave consistently found that
the vast majority of the population read (e.g. BookMarketing Limited, 2000). Popular fiction,
including women’s popular fiction,thrillers and crime novels, was the most frequent choice of
text named (40%).
Thenext most frequent category of texts recorded were autobiographies and biographies,and
other post 1980s novels (both 14%). A smaller percentage (6.5%) had recentlyread children’s
fiction, including novels which have also been widely read by adults,sometimes referred to as
‘crossover’ books. Harry Potter (JK Rowling) was top ofthis list and there were multiple
mentions of The Curious Incident of the Dog in theNight-Time (Mark Haddon).On reflecting
upon their favourite childhood reading, popular fiction was againthe most frequently
mentioned category (60 %), particularly the work of Enid Blytonand Roald Dahl, whose
various titles were listed over 200 times. Ten per cent of theteachers’ favourites were
twentieth-century classics such as Black Beauty (AnnaSewell), Heidi (Johanna Spyri) and
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (C.S.Lewis). Picture books represented 9% of the
total. Only 1.5% noted poetry as theirfavourite childhood reading although this may have
been partly due to the questionwhich referred to ‘your favourite book as a child’, triggering
perhaps memories of anarrative text.When choosing their most important book, whilst
acknowledging that teachersmay have interpreted this question in a variety of ways, it is clear
that theydiscounted popular fiction in favour of religious, spiritual, allegorical and
exemplarybooks. These included not only the Bible, mentioned over 100 times, but also,
forexample, works with themes of morality and justice, including very recent as well
astwentieth-century fiction.
The responses included many classics, both from Europeand North America, which the
teachers are likely to have studied in school as pupils.The pre-eminence of popular cultural
texts in their current reading and favouritebooks from childhood is interesting, particularly in
relation to their knowledge ofchildren’s literature. For a more detailed report on this element
of the data seeCremin, Bearne, Goodwin and Mottram (2008a
What is surprising however, especially given the wealth of books available whichexploit both
word and image, is that primary teachers’ knowledge was poorest in thearea of picture
fiction. In terms of multiple mentions, a small group of the rich rangeof authors/illustrators
who are publishing for children today were mentioned andthis is problematic, especially
since a relatively large number of authors/creators ofother kinds of book were inadvertently
mentioned in this category. It is worth notingthat many of the picture book makers who
received numerous mentions create textslargely targeted at nought to seven year olds, that
knowledge of authors who createmore complex visual texts targeted at older readers was
limited, and that teachers ofolder readers knew fewer picture fiction authors. What is also
worrying is theremarkably large number of teachers who work with children aged five to
sevenyears who found it hard to name just half a dozen picture book creators. It may bethat
many of these named book titles instead, but this is of little help to childrenwhose tentative
early journeys as readers could be nurtured through an affinity for aparticular Shirley
Hughes’ character or Martin Waddell’s writing. Young readersdeserve to be introduced to the
notion of authorship and to develop their pleasureand preferences for writers and
illustrators.The data that suggest teachers with less experience in the profession knew
fewerpicture book creators are also of interest. Whether these teachers were
predominantly‘functional’ or ‘detached’ readers – as in a study into pre-service teachers as
readers inSingapore – is not known ( Cox & Schaetzel, 2007), but it may suggest that
recentlytrained teachers have engaged in a less literature-informed curriculum, both perhaps
intheir training institutions and in their school-based experience. This finding may alsorelate
to the time needed to build such a repertoire, especially for mature students,whose own
memories of childhood books may be somewhat distant
In the end I want to say that the fictional image is of great importance for
British literature. a lot of literary masterpieces have been written in the
genre of a fictional image. For example, the masterpiece Alice's
Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, The Amazing Wizard of Oz
by Lyman Frank Baima, Peter Pan by James Matthew Barry.
From the current famous books written in the genre of a fictional image,
Twilight is often read, Before meeting you, The stars are to blame, After
you. These books are mostly read by the younger generation.
And it is a fact that the works written in the fictional genre are more than
others. this is because such works are much more interesting than those
taken from real events. Fiction is mostly written in the genre of a
Fictional image. and this is also one reason that this genre is more
interesting and read a lot. Both adults and children like fantastic stories,
because in this genre a person reading a book represents something
not real, such books develop human imagination. What I mean is that in
the present world there are no fantastic things, for example, super
people who can fly or have super strength, no dragons breathing fire,
time machines with which you can put out in time or potions after
drinking which you can become invisible. That is why people prefer to
read vymashlenye stories than taken from the present life.
In this world, people get tired of monotonous life, they want something
unusual, something that can take you to a fairy-tale world, and books
written in the genre of a fictional image go very well for this role. They
develop a human imagination, because when a person reads a book, he
imagines everything he reads and his imagination develops. Especially
small children like to read such introductions, because they like it when
life is as colorful as in these books. and it is very useful to read books in
the genre of a fictional image, which means that children need to
develop their imagination. And this is the best way to achieve such
results.
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