Audio scale up student’s book Course 3 Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan State University of World Languages

Emergence of the Doctor’s
and Master’s Degrees and the
Licentiate
a. The doctorate (Latin: doceo, I teach) appeared 
in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: 
licentia docendi) at a medieval university. Its 
roots can be traced to the early church when the 
term «doctor» referred to the Apostles, church 
fathers and other Christian authorities who taught 
and interpreted the Bible. The right to grant a 
licentia docendi was originally reserved to the 
church, which required the applicant to pass a 
test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The 
Third Council o f the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed 
the access - now largely free of charge - of all 
able applicants, who were however, still tested 
for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This 
right remained a bone of contention between the 
church authorities and the slowly emancipating 
universities, but was granted by the Pope to the 
University of Paris in 1231 where it became 
a universal license to teach (licentia ubique 
docendi). However, while the licentia continued 
to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor’s 
degree 
(Baccalaureus), 
it was 
ultimately 
reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister 
and doctorate, both of which now became the 
exclusive qualification for teaching.
b. At the university, doctoral training was a form 
of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term 
o f study before new teachers were admitted to 
the guild of «Master of Arts», seven years, was 
the same as the term of apprenticeship for other 
occupations. Originally, the terms «master» 
and «doctor» were synonymous, but over time, 
the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher 
qualification than the master degree.
c. Today the terms «master», «doctor» (from

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the Latin - meaning literally: «teacher») and 
«professor» signify different levels of academic 
achievement, but in the Medieval university 
they were equivalent terms, the use of them 
in the degree name being a m atter of custom 
at a university. (Most universities conferred the 
Master of Arts, although the highest degree was 
often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or 
Doctor of Theology/Divinity depending on the 
place).
d. The earliest doctoral degrees (Theology - 
Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), Philosophy - Doctor 
of Philosophy (D.Phil, Ph.D.) and Medicine - 
Medicinae Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the 
historical separation of all University study 
into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. 
has gradually become less common outside 
theology, and is now mostly used for honorary 
degrees, with the title «Doctor o f Theology» 
being used more often for earned degrees. 
Studies outside theology and medicine were then 
called «philosophy», due to the Renaissance 
c o n v ic tio n
that real knowledge could be 
derived from empirical observation, and this 
usage survives in the degree title of Doctor of 
Philosophy. Studies in these fields have become 
much more common, but are now classified as 
sciences and humanities.
e. The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as 
the oldest university in Europe, was the second 
institution to confer the degree o f Doctor in Civil 
Law in the late XIIth century; it also conferred 
similar degrees in other subjects, including 
medicine.
f. The University of Paris used the term «master» 
for its graduates, a practice adopted by the 
English Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
as well as the ancient Scottish Universities of St 
Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh.
Adopted from: http://www.academicapparel.com/
caps/History-Academic-Degrees.html
acknowledge 
any 
anomalous 
data 
or 
deviations from what you expected, purpose, 
explore the theoretical and practical implications 
of your finding, background/previous research, 
hypothesis, content (how much detail, rationale, 
control, style (subsections, narrative story, past 
tense, passive voice, verbs 
1
st person), text (a short 
paragraph that describes the results you obtained), 
passed on your findings, tables (number the 
table, give a title, include units of measurement, 
line up numbers), explain whether support your 
hypothesis, derive conclusions, about the process 
you are studying, relate your findings to earlier 
work in the same area, arrange vertically