Iberian Peninsula to the indus

Bibliography
: lillios 2008.

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A looK into the pASt:
idolS of the iBeriAn peninSulA
cylindrical eye figure
Iberian peninsula, Estramadura?
Chalcolithic period (IV millennium BC)
Museo Arqueológico Nacional, 
Madrid, inv. 2002/98/3 
(cat. 1, detail)
T
he dearth of images from our prehistoric ancestors leads us to pay particular 
attention to the few representations that bring us closer to those distant epochs: 
the idols we are dealing with here, wall art (cave and megalithic) and some 
ceramic decorations. the word “idols” here refers to a heterogeneous set of small an-
thropomorphic statuettes. more strictly speaking, the term “idol” refers to a cult object, 
for example, a representation of a divinity. We scholars of prehistory, however, are still 
far from being able to associate these images from the past with a specific function. in 
fact, we cannot even be sure that all these statuettes have a similar meaning. for this 
reason, many scholars prefer to speak of ideomorphs, ideotechnical objects, idol-like 
pieces or symbolic productions – all terms whose interpretative weight complicates their 
use significantly. therefore, it seems to us more correct to use the term “idol”, a conven-
tional use that does not imply acceptance of the aforementioned academic definition. 
in the iberian peninsula, we have a large set of idols spanning a chronological range 
that greatly exceeds two millennia. they are concentrated in the south of the peninsula 
and made of diverse materials in a wide variety of typologies. despite this heterogeneity, 
it is reasonable to say that they generally communicate the same idea through their 
styles which, though different, share a particular importance of the eyes and simplifi-
cation of the bodies, rendered through the geometric base element of a triangle. As in 
other fields, the collection of idols of the museo Arqueológico nacional (mAn) can be 
considered representative of this production, especially because it conserves some of 
the most emblematic pieces, including those selected for this exhibition.
the production of this genre of symbolic representations probably began in the fifth 
millennium Bc in the post-cardial horizon and ended in the late third millennium Bc. 
more recent idols, from the campaniform period, have distinct anthropomorphic traits, 
but in many cases maintain the same style of representing the parts of the body to 
which they refer (eyes, hair, tattoos). late depictions are clearly masculine or feminine, 
reflecting the ideological shift that, along with many others, marked the transition from 
the Chalcolithic to the Bronze Age. 
often we ignore the contexts to which these statuettes belong since many of them 
come from ancient excavations; nonetheless, we can suppose that they were found in 
both funerary and residential contexts. their presence in burial sites makes it possi-
ble at times to identify some kind of correlation between those buried there and the 
symbolic representations (a given idol for a given individual), while in others, there 
is no such clear relationship. in recent years, ritual deposits have been identified in 

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silos and tombs that allow us to reconsider this direct relationship between idols and 
individuals. regardless, we believe that there were spaces in settlement contexts de-
voted to production that we identify as simple workshops of a rudimentary form of 
craftwork, produced only part time and in conjunction with everyday survival activities. 
Although there is still scant information in this regard, the presence of these statuettes 
in metallurgical contexts should also not be forgotten. 
As mentioned before, the idols of the iberian peninsula are distributed in the south-
ern part of the region, concentrated primarily in certain deposits such as those at 
Almizaraque, la pijotilla and Valencina. Although each area shows a degree of pref-
erence for a given typology, as Victor hurtado pérez pointed out, there are no sharp 
delimitations and connections can be observed between the different zones. We see, 
for example, that the funnel idols, typical of the southeast of the peninsula, extend as 
far as Seville (Valencina) and portugal (perdigões). on the other hand, cylindrical idols, 
while concentrated in the southwest, occasionally appear in Almería and Granada and, 
in at least one well-known case, in the south of france. in fact, large deposits like that 
of Valencina have yielded virtually the entire range of known typologies. 
the statuettes are made of bone, clay, stone, wood and even gold. Beyond the mate-
rial, however, it is also important to consider the use of pigments to colour them. in the 
case of plaques, for example, the incised decoration is highlighted by filling the incisions 
with a white paste, probably ground calcite, in order to give greater visibility to the 
features. other types of dyes are also commonly used, including minerals generically 
referred to as ochre. these can be made of clays with various types of iron oxides (for 
example, oligisto) or of cinnabar, and sometimes different components will be found in 
a single context. the use of colour was intended to intensify the visual impact of these 
figurines. it is important to know, however, that some of these dyes had a corrosive 
effect that compromises our present-day interpretation of the object.
the majority of idols of the iberian peninsula are made of bone or stone. the bone 
idols are among the most interesting, subdivided into idols created from long bones, 
phalange-idols,
spatula-idols and flat idols. the first group are known as the “Pasto-
ra-Almizaraque” type, which express a complex iconography noteworthy for the atten-
tion to the eyes, enhanced with what are most probably eyebrows and tattoos. these 
idols are concentrated in the southeast quadrant of the peninsula, though examples 
can also be found in other areas, as in the case of finds from estremadura and the 
madrid area. this type dates to the first half of the third millennium BC.
Another particularly interesting type of bone statuette is one known as the phal-
ange-idol. this category, however, includes a widely varying collection of objects that 
probably had a variety of uses. their “idol” nature (in the sense that we are attributing 
to it here) is evident in the objects with incised or painted decoration; a substantial 
number of others, however, have no surface decoration but are nonetheless the result 
of an intentional process. this second group may have had their own distinct practical 
function, or they could be artefacts that have lost their painted decoration or whose 
function was defined through the application of perishable elements since lost. gener-
ally, these idols are created from the first phalange of horses or cattle, whose natural 
forms can acquire a specific value due to their relationship to the human figure. 
Another type, especially interesting for its great age, is the spatula-idol (san martín-
el miradero type), typical of the north of the meseta and dating between the fifth 
millennium BC and the beginning of the fourth. finally, there are idols made of bone 
lamina, distinguished by their flat surface though they also exhibit profiles (straight, 
cruciform, triangular, etc.) and diverse forms of workmanship. All of these date to the 
fourth millennium BC.
A category that is not strictly defined by its material support is that of the anthro-
pomorphic idols. the most recent idols (second half of the third millennium BC) most 
resemble the human figure, but even examples from previous epochs have visible 
sexual connotations in the various typologies. for example, there are representations 
of breasts in the 
betilos
or baetyls and in the funnel idols, pubic triangles in the phal-
ange-idols, etc. By the end of the Chalcolithic, the statuettes are more natural, closer to 
the human figure of reference. Concentrated in the guadiana valley, the best-conserved 
examples of these idols have stylized forms and well-defined faces. some are holding 
what seems to be a symbol of power, an element that has been associated with the 
emergence of an elite in which men were gradually assuming a dominant role.
much rarer are the ceramic idols, although they include examples such as those of 
la Pijotilla or Valencina de la Concepción. rarer still are wooden idols and idols made 
with gold leaf, probably mounted on a core of wood or leather. Wooden idols have been 
found in Cueva sagrada di lorca (murcis), while gold leaf idols were discovered in the 
tholos
tombs of gandul and montelirio (both in seville) and in the grand dolmen of 
Zambujeiro near Évora, in Portugal. the other major subset of iberian idols are those 
made of stone, most frequently of slate, schist or marble, or occasionally of alabaster 
or steatite.
Among the simplest types are the so-called “almeriense”, either cruciform or vio-
lin-shaped. their shape basically corresponds to a cross or double triangle with “arms”. 
the presence of these arms has given rise to a variety of interpretations, including the 
theory that they are praying. However, it should be pointed out that the orientation of 
1
Footed bowl with incised eyes
Los Millares, Spain
III millennium BC
Pottery
Ashmolean Museum of Art and 
Archaeology – University of Oxford

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the statuette is unclear in many cases. considering only the most unambiguous pieces, 
the arms of some do indeed seem to be raised in a praying gesture, while others are 
clearly pointing down or even have their hands on their hips.
Baetyls and funnel figurines are also less well-defined, generally smooth pieces of 
varying sizes, from small funnels just over a centimetre tall (some made of bone) to the 
large baetyls measuring substantially more than thirty centimetres. they usually have 
only vaguely sketched eyes (with straight lines) and breasts. the baetyls have a strong 
funerary connotation, with a documented presence in enclosures outside of the large 
megalithic structures. this positioning has been taken to suggest that they represent 
those buried in the architectural complex. Within this typology, the idols that can be 
considered most characteristic are the pieces chosen for this exhibition by the mAn 
– plaque idols and idols with eyes. the plaque-idols are the most common type, with 
approximately four thousand known pieces, concentrated in the fourth millennium Bc 
and produced in the Alentejo region of portugal. the simplest examples are “smooth” 
slabs with very small incisions, such as those found in los millares and Alicante. (it 
is likely that the Alicante examples, devoid of incisions, were not idols at all but had 
other uses.) 
plaque-idols, with their varying degrees of stylistic complexity, have been subdivid-
ed by pascal Bueno into two large groups according to the presence or absence of an 
anthropomorphic characterization. An example from each category has been selected 
in this exhibition: the 
cat. 4
plaque-idol belongs to the group with obvious anthropo-
morphic references insofar as they display an effort to delineate a face and large eyes, 
whereas the 
cat. 5
idol is an example of pieces of an essentially geometric nature. 
these idols have been documented primarily in funerary contexts (in well-conserved 
cases, one can see them placed on the chest of the buried individual) in large megalithic 
structures. these structures became the most distinctive element of a territory that 
was increasingly structured in the fourth millennium Bc and with which a bond had 
to be demonstrated, that is, a right to claim ownership of the land.
the cylindrical idols with eyes are another of the most common typologies of the 
southeastern region of the peninsula. As in the previous case, stylistic differences range 
from the simpler examples of estremadura in portugal to the more “Baroque” examples 
found mostly along the lower reaches of the Guadalquivir. d
espite their flat support, 
the flat stone examples with eyes, such as our 
cat. 2
, are categorized as another vari-
ant of the cylindrical type, with very similar characteristics. this type is concentrated 
in the present-day province of Badajoz. unlike what is seen in plaque-idols, most of 
those with eyes have been associated with residential structures. According to some 
authors, by the third millennium BC, a territory’s most important contexts were its 
large villages, and no longer its megalithic funerary structures. the appearance of these 
idols in such settlements reflects regional differences of a shared idea, as happens in 
previously structured territories. nonetheless, the Chalcolithic megaliths continue to 
be our principal source of information about the beliefs of these populations.
As for the techniques used to produce these objects, without entering into too much 
detail, it is worth noting that the idols made of long bone are the most complex. inter-
est in these has focused at different times on the incisions, the painting (short-term 
or long-term corrosion), the pyrography and the lost wax manufacture. these stone 
idols have incisions and abrasions of varying intensities, implying enough technical 
complexity to theorize the need for specialized artisans.
Concerning the interpretation of the formal attributes, it is easily observed that 
circles and triangles are the most frequent basic graphic motifs. Circles are used es-
sentially to represent the eyes, whether radial (as in idols 
cat. 1, 2, 4
) or simple (as in 
plaque-idol 
cat. 3
). triangles represent the genitals (
cat. 3
), as well as the head in the 
anthropomorphic and plaque examples (
cat. 4
). they are also used more generally to 
2
Anthr
opomorphic figure
with raised arms
Llano de la Media, Legua, Fines, 
Almería, Spain
III millennium BC
Terracotta????? VERIFY
Museo Arqueológico Nacional, 
Madrid, inv. 1984/178/1/1
3
Phalanx-idol
La Hoya de los Castellones, Gorafe, 
Granada 
III millennium BC
Bone
Museo Arqueológico Nacional, 
Madrid, inv. 1985/49/H-CAST/19/1

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indicate the entire figure, as in the case of figures with two or three triangles, bone 
disc idols, and the exceptional image of an individual incised in the plaque-idol of lapa 
do Bugio. 
triangles and circles are also reproduced with a similar treatment on other supports. 
this is the case of the so-called “symbolic ceramic” in the south of the peninsula, where 
we find large eyes like those on vessels from los millares, or figures with two triangles 
like those depicted on the vessel from cerro de las canteras (Almería). Similarly, both 
motifs are found in numerous cave paintings and in various sites of the southeast 
quadrant of the peninsula (the provinces of Jaén, Almería, Alicante and murcia). 
the graphic motifs unite to form friezes, such as those seen in the 
cat. 5
idol. in 
some cases, these friezes are subtle and unadorned. According to some scholars, they 
should be understood as narrative panels: those representing various pairs of eyes, 
for example, are interpreted – as we will see later – as references to more than one 
person, that is, to more than one ancestor. in rare cases, not all the eyes in these idols 
are part of a pair. many scholars have stressed the importance of representation of 
the eyes. According to some theories, the way in which they are reproduced seems 
to suggest masks rather than human faces. Another hypothesis, still focusing on the 
interpretation of the eyes, proposes that they represent people in a trance, perhaps 
after taking a hallucinogenic substance.
other recurring elements of these statuettes are the crosswise lines usually found 
under the eyes (
cat. 1, 2, 4
). these incisions have been interpreted as wings, facial 
tattoos, or even signs of suffering. Based on a comparison with preindustrial popu-
lations of the modern era, the “facial tattoos” theory seems most likely, especially in 
light of the discovery of pieces such as the heads from los millares and la pijotilla or 
of the interpretation of traits depicted on the anthropomorphic types. many of these 
statuettes also have hair, whether loose, indicated by zigzag lines, or pulled back in a 
pigtail. 
cat. 1, 2 
are good examples of the attention devoted to the depiction of hair in 
these figurines.
the lower parts of the idol, when they are decorated, are interpreted 
as garments with rich geometric ornamentation (
cat. 4-5
), following the hypotheses 
proposed for other finds, such as ceramic vessels.
After this brief overview of the partial interpretation of the elements represented 
in these idols, we conclude with a consideration of the overall meaning that has been 
attributed to them. Since these idols were first studied, specifically with the work of 
luis Siret (1908), there have been a multitude of interpretations. the first theories 
postulate that they were religious objects, for example, protective idols identified with 
those buried in the grave sites. Some scholars, such as Victor S. Gonçalves, continue 
to use the term “divinity”; others, such as pascal Bueno, assert that a well-prescribed 
cult had already developed around the megalithic sites, where many of these statuettes 
were found, although this religion cannot yet have had the controlling role typically 
exercised in a society organized as a state.
the theory has been advanced that the idols were associated with ancestors and 
thus had a heraldic function. this possible interpretation would justify the discrepancy 
between the number of the buried and the number of funerary symbols since each 
idol could correspond, for example, to several members of one family. following this